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Glass T S .ja.?lL 



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A 

PRACTICAL WORK-SHOP COMPANION 

FOR 

TIN, SHEBT=IRON, 

AND 

COPPER-PLATE WORKERS. 

CONTAINING 

RULES FOR DESCRIBING VARIOUS KINDS OF PATTERNS USED 

BY TIN, SHEET-IRON, AND COPPER-PLATE WORKERS 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY; 

Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids : 

TABLES OF THE WEIGHTS AND STRENGTHS OF "METALS AND 
OTHER MATERIALS; TABLES OF AREAS AND CIRCUMFER- 
ENCES OF CIRCLES ; COMPOSITION OF METALLIC ALLOYS 
AND SOLDERS, WITH NUMEROUS VALUABLE RE- 
CEIPTS AND MANIPULATIONS FOR EVERY- 
DAY USE IN THE WORK-SHOi-. 



MASTER MFCKA >■!'■>. \ •, :, \ \ -, ^ \ ^ . ^ ^ ^~, 1 ^^ 



A NEW, REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITI^k., »f)]^I.i^'t^D.' FKOM 
NEW TYPE, AND WITH 

170 NEWLY ENGRAVED ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PHILADELPHIA : 
HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 

INDUSTRIAL PUBLISH KRS, ROOKSKI.LKRS AND IMPORTERS, 

8 ID Walnut Strep:t. 
1904. 



f6^ 



SO 

4- 



Copyright by Henry Carey Baird & Co., 1891 



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L\^io(^7^'A 



PREFACE 



The present is a new and thoroughly revised edition of 
one of the most popular technical books ever published in 
the United States. It having been found accessary to 
make a new set of electrotype plates and new engravings 
—the old ones having been worn out by actual use — it was 
determined to have the book re-edited and to add to it, in 
the different departments, new, recent and necessary 
matter. All of the old illustrations of patterns have been 
retained, and new ones have been added. 

The portion treating of metallic alloys and solders has 
been entirely rewritten, so as to have a more systematic 
arrangement, and to bring it abreast with the best modern 
practice in this interesting and important field. In all the 
other departments new matter has been added, every 
effort having been made to render the entire work, in the 
future, if possible even more useful to the Tin, Sheet-Iron 
and Copper-Plate worker than in the past. 

Reference to the many subjects treated of will be ren= 
dered easy by a very full table of contents and a volu- 
minous index. 

Philadelphia, April 30, 1891, 

(iii) 



CONTENTS. 



Rules for Describing Patterns. 

To describe an envelope for a cone ; To describe a frustum 
of a cone , 1 

To describe a can top or deck flange 2 

To describe a pattern for, or an envelope for a frustum of a 
cone .......,,. 3 

To describe a pattern for a tapering oval article, to be in 
four sections ......... 4 

To describe a i)attern for a tapering oval article, to be in 
two sections ......... 7 

To describe a pattern for a tapering oval article, to be in 
two sections 9 

To describe a pattern for a tai)ering oval article (anotber 
method) 11 

To describe a pattern for a tapering oval, or oblong article, 
the sides to be straight, with quarter- circle corners, to be 
in two sections 13 

To describe a pattern for a tapering oval, or oblong article, 
the sides to be straight, one end to be a semicircle, the 
other end to be straight, with quarter-circle corners, to be 
in two sections . 14 

To describe a pattern for a tapering oval, or oblong article, 
the sides to be straight, with semicircle ends, to be in two 
sections . 16 

To describe a pattern for a fish-kettle with straight sides . 17 

To draw the plan of an oblong taper bath, the size of the 
top and bottom, the height, and the slant at the head 
being given . . ,18 

To draw the plan of a hip-bath, or of a sitz-bath . , 20 

To describe a frustum of an oblique pyramid . . ,23 

To describe without long radii a frustum of an oblique pyra- 
mid, the plan of the frustum and its height being given , 26 



vi CONTENTS. 

To draw tlie pattern of a hood . . . , , .28 
Covering of circular roofs, etc. ; First method . . .30 
Second method ; To cover a dome bj' the first method . 31 
To cover a dome by the second method . . . .32 
To ascertain the outlines of a course of covering to a dome 
without reference to a section of the dome ; Covering of a 

hipped-roof 33 

To describe a pattern for a tapering square article . . 40 
To describe a pattern for a tapering square article, to be in 
two sections ; To describe a pattern for a tapering article, 
the base to be square, and the top a circle, to be in two 

sections -41 

To describe a pattern for a tapering article, the base to be a 

rectangle and the top square, to be in two sections . . 42 
To describe a pattern for a tapering article, the base to be a 
rectangle, and the top a circle, to be in two sections ; To 
describe a pattern for a tapering article, the top and base 
to be a rectangle, to be in two sections . . . .44 
To describe a pattern for tapering octagon top or cover . 46 
To describe a pattern for a miter-joint at right angles for a 

semicircle gutter 47 

To describe a pattern foi* a miter-joint at an}' angle for a 

semicircle gutter 48 

To describe a pattern for a miter-joint for an Gr gutter at 

right angles 49 

To describe a pattern for a miter-joint for an G cornice at 
right angles ; also an offset ...... 50 

To describe a pattern for an octagon G lamp top or 

cover 52 

To describe a pattern for a stand (aquarium stand, for in- 
stance) the edge of which is a moulding . . . .53 

To describe a T pipe at right angles 56 

To describe a pattern for a T pipe at any angle . . .57 
To describe a pattern for a T pipe, the collar to be smaller 

than the main pipe 59 

To describe a pattern for a T pipe at any angle, the collar to 

be smaller than the main pipe 61 

To describe a pattern for a T pipe at any angle, the collar to 
be set on one side of the main pipe . , . .63 



CONTENTS. vii 

To describe the pattern for a T-piece formed b}' two equal 
or unequal circular pipes (cylinders of equal or unequal 
diameter) which meet at right angles . . . ,64 
To describe the pattern for the T formed by a funnel-shape 
piece of pipe and a circular piece, the former being 
square to the latter ; the diameter of the circular pipe 
and the diameters of the ends of the funnel-shape pipe 
and its length being given ...... 68 

To describe a pattern for a pipe to fit a fiat surface at any 

angle, as the side of the roof of a building . . . 73 
To describe a pattern for a pipe to fit two flat surfaces, as 

the roof of a building 74 

To describe the form of a "tapering piece" of piping, to 
join two pieces of piping, which are both vertical, but not 
in the same axis, and which are of difi'erent diameters . 75 
To describe an elbow at right angles . . . . .78 
To describe an elbow pattern at any angle . . . ,79 
To describe a pattern for an elbow in three sections . . 80 
To describe a pattern for an elbow in four sections . . 82 
To describe a pattern for an elbow in five sections . . 84 
To describe a pattern for a tapering elbow , . . .87 
To describe an oval boiler cover ; To describe a pattern for a 

.flange for a pipe that goes on the roof of a ])uilding . 89 

To describe an octagon or square top or cover . . .90 

To describe a steamer cover 91 

To describe an ellipse or oval, having the two diameters 
given ; To draw an ellipse with the rule and compasses, the 
transverse and conjugate diameters being given ; that is 
the length and width ....... 92 

To draw an egg-shaped oval, having the length and width 

given 93 

To find the centre and the two axes of an ellipse . . 94 

To find the radius and versed sine for a given frustum of a 

cone . . . . 95 

To draw a figure having straight sides and semicircular ends 96 

Practical Geometry. 
From any given point, in a straight line, to erect a perpen- 
dicular ; or, to make a line at right angles with a giveo 



viii CONTENTS. 

line ; When a perpendicular is to be made at or near the 
end of a given line ; To bisect a given line (divide a line 
into two equal parts) 97 

To divide a line into any number of equal parts ; To do the 
same otherwise ; To bisect any given angle . . .98 

To trisect (divide into three equal angles) a right angle ; To 
describe a triangle in a circle ; To find the centre of a 
circle ; To find the length of any given arc of a circle . 99 

To find the centre of a circle, or radius, that shall cut any 
three given points, not in a direct line : Through any 
given point, to draw a tangent to a circle ; To draw from 
or to the circumference of a circle lines tending towards 
the centre, when the centre is inaccessible . . . 100 

To describe an arc or segment of a circle of large radii ; Or 
otherwise ; To describe a parabola, the dimensions being 
given 101 

To describe an elliptic arch, the width and rise of span being 
given ; To obtain by measurement the length of any direct 
line, though intercepted by some material object . .102 

To inscribe any regular polygon in a given circle ; To de- 
scribe any regular polygon, the length of one side being 
given 103 

To form a circle equal in area to a given ellipse ; To con- 
struct a square upon a given right line ; To form a square 
equal in area to a given triangle 104 

To form a triangle equal in area to a circle . . . .105 

To form a square equal in area to a given rectangle ; To find 
the length for a rectangle, whose area shall be equal to 
that of a given square, the breadth of the rectangle being 
also given ; To describe a circle of greatest diameter in a 
given triangle 106 

To bisect any given triangle ; To form a rectangle of greatest 
surface in a given triangle ; To inscribe within a given 
equilateral triangle three equal semicircles having their 
diameters adjacent and equal 101 

To inscribe in a given circle three equal semicircles having 
their diameters adjacent 108 

Decimal equivalents to fractional parts of lineal measurement 108 



CONTENTS. ix 

Mensuration of SuRrACES. 

Definitions of arithmetical signs used in the following calcu- 
lations ; To measure or ascertain the quantity of surface 
in any right-lined figure, whose sides are parallel to each 
other . 110 

To find the area of a triangle when the base and perpendic- 
ular are given ; Any two sides of a right-angled triangle 
being given, to find the third ; When the hypothenuse 
and base are given, to find the perpendicular . . .111 

When the hypothenuse and the perpendicular are given, to 
find the base ; To find the area of a regular pol3^gon ; To 
find the area of a regular polygon, when the side only is 
given 112 

Table of angles relative to the construction of regular poly- 
gons with the aid of the sector, and of coefficients to facil- 
itate their construction without it ; also, of coefficients to 
aid in finding the area of the figure, the side only being 
given 113 

The circle and its sections ; Observations and definitions .113 

General rules in relation to the circle ; Application of the 
rules to practical purposes .... . .114 

Any chord and versed sine of a circle being given, to find the 
diameter ; To find the length of any arc of a circle . . 115 

To find the area of the sector of a circle ; To find the area 
of a segment of a circle 116 

To find the area of the space contained between two concen- 
tric circles or the area of a circular ring ; To find the area 
of an ellipse or oval ; To find the circumference of an 
ellipse or oval 117 

To find the convex surface of a cyhnder ; To find the convex 
surface of a right cone or pyramid ; To find the convex 
surface of a frustum of a cone or pyramid . . .118 

To find the convex surface of a sphere or globe . . .119 

Mensuration of Solids and Capacities of Bodies. 
To find the solidity or capacity of any figure in the cubical 

form; To find the solidity of cylinders . . . .119 
To find the contents in gallons of cylindrical vessels ; To find 



X CONTENTS. 

the solidity of a cone or a pjTamid ; To find the soHdity of 
the frustum of a cone 120 

To find the contents in United States standard gallons of the 
frustum of a cone ; To find the solidity of the frustum of 
a pyramid 121 

To find the solidity of a sphere 122 

Tables of Weights, Etc. 
Weight of square rolled iron, from i inch to 12 inches, and 

1 foot in length ; Weight of flat rolled iron, from ixh 

inch to 1 X 6 inches .123 

Weight of round rolled iron, from I inch to 12 inches in 

diameter, and 1 foot in length 124 

Weight of a square foot of wrought iron, copper and lead, 

from x'e to 2 inches thick , 125 

Weight of copper bolts, from i to 4 inches in diameter and 

1 foot in length . .126 

Tables op the Circi^mference of Circles, to the Near- 
est Fraction of Practical Measurement; also, the 
Areas of Circles, in Inches and Decimal Parts ; 
likewise in Feet and Decimal Parts as may be 
required . 
Rules rendering the tables more generally useful . .127 

Sizes of tinware in form of frustum of a cone ; Pans : Dish 

kettles and pails ; Cofi'ee pots ; Dippers . . .135 

Measures ; Wash-bowls ; Druggists' and liquor dealers' 

measures .136 

Capacity of cylinders in United States gallons . . .137 
Decimal equivalents of the fractionnl parts of a gallon ; Ex- 
planation of the tables 143 

Specific gravity . . . . . . . . .145 

Table showing the specific gravities of technically important 
bodies (metals, stones, varieties of earths, woods, seeds, 

fluids) 14t) 

Heat 147 

Latent heat of various substances ; Specific heat of difi'erent 
substances; Fusing points of the principal metals and 
other elements employed in alloys . . . . .148 



CONTENTS. xi 

Relative internal heat-conducting power of bodies ; Table of 

effects of heat upon bodies ; Expansion of metals by heat 149 
Comparative radiating or absorbent or reflecting powers of 

substances ; Tempering 150 

To temper by the thermometer ; To temper brass or to 

draw its temper ; To temper drills 151 

To temper gravers ; Mixtures for tempering . , .152 

Water; Composition of water 153 

Boiling point of water 154 

Specific gravity and weight of water . . . . .155 
Effects produced by water in its natural state . . ,156 
Air ; Effects produced by air in its natural, and also in its 

rarefied state 157 

Table of expansion of atmospheric air by heat . . . 1 58 

Manufacture of tin plate 159 

Quality of tin plate ; To recognize a content of lead in tin ; 
Crystallized tin plate . . . . . . .163 

Size, length, breadth and weight of tin plates . . . 164 

Tin roofing and tin work 165 

Table showing the lengths and diameters of pipes, made 
from sheets, and also the amount contained in one box ; 
Semicircular gutters ; Galvanized iron ; Mouldings of 

galvanized iron 166 

American lap weld iron boiler flues, manufactured by the 
Reading Iron Company ; Calibre and weights of fountains 

or aqueduct pipes 169 

Calibre and weight of lead pipe ; To ascertain the weights 

of pipes of various metals, and any diameter required . 1 70 
A-pplication of the rule ; Weight of a square foot of sheet 

iron, copper and brass as per Birmingham wire gauge . 171 
Gas pipes ; Table of the diameter and length of gas pipes 
to transmit given quantities of gas to branch pipes and 

burners ; Services for lamps 172 

Weight of a superficial foot of plates of different metals 
in pounds ; Recapitulation of weights of various sub- 
stances 173 

Expansion of cast and wrought iron ; Table showing the 
figures by which the weight of the pattern has to be 
multiplied to obtain the weight of the casting . . 174 



lii CONTENTS. 

Shrinkage of castings . 175 

Speed of saws running 10,000 feet per minute on the rim ; 
Rules for calculating speeds, etc 176 

Practical Receipts. 

Japanning and varnishing 178 

White japan ground . 179 

Gum copal 180 

To japan or varnish white leathei ; Black grounds . . 181 
Black japan ; Brunswick black ; Blue japan grounds ; Scar- 
let japan 182 

Yellow grounds ; Green japan grounds ; Orange-colored 

grounds; Purple japan grounds 183 

Black japan ; Japan black for leather ; Transparent japan ; 

Japanners' copal varnish ; Tortoise-shell japan . . 184 
Painting japan work ; Japanning old tea trays . . .185 
Japan finishing . .186 

Varnishes— M iscELLANEOUS. 
Chief resins employed in the manufacture of varnishes . 188 

Solvents of the various resins 190 

Spirit varnishes ; Essence varnishes ; Oil varnishes . . 191 

Lacquer 192 

Copal varnishes . . . . . . . .193 

Cabinet varnish ; Table varnish ; Copal varnish for inside 

work ; Best body copal varnish for coach makers, etc, . 195 
Copal polish ; White si)irit varnish ; White hard spirit 

varnishes; White varnish 190 

Soft brilliant varnish ; Brown, hard spirit varnishes ; To 
prepare a varnish for coating metals ; To varnish articles 

. of iron and steel 197 

Varnish for iron work ; Black varnish for iron work ; 

Bronze varnish for statuary ; Amber varnishes . . 198 
Amber varnish, black ; Amber varnishes .... 199 
Black varnish ; Varnish for certain parts of carriages ; 
Coach varnish ; Mahogany varnish ; Varnish for cabinet- 
makers ; Cement varnish for watertight luting ; The var- 
nish of Watin for gilded articles 200 

Cheap oak varnish ; Varnish for wood -work ; Dark varnish 



CONTENTS. xiii 

for light wood-work ; Variiisli for instruments ; Varnish 
for the wood toys of Spa ; Varnishes for furniture . . 201 

To French polish ........ 202 

Furniture polishes ; Furniture gloss ; Furniture cream, oils 
and pastes . . . 203 

Etching varnishes ; Varnish for engravings, maps, etc. ; 
Varnish to fix engravings or lithographs on wood ; Var- 
nishes for oil paintings and lithograi)hs ; Varnish tor oil 
paintings ; Beautiful varnish for paintings and pictures. 204 

Milk of wax ; Crystal varnishes 205 

Italian varnishes ; Size, or varnish, for printers ; Mastic 
varnishes ; India rubber varnishes . . . . 20G 

Black varnish for harness; Boiled oil or linseed oil varnish ; 
Dammar varnish ; Common varnish ; Water-proof var- 
nishes 208 

Varnishes for balloons, gas bags, etc. ; Gold varnish ; Wain- 
scot varnish for house painting and japanning . . 209 

Iron work, black ; Black japan varnish ; Leather varnish ; 
Varnish for smooth moulding patterns ; Fine black var- 
nish for coaches 210 

Lacquers. 

Gold lacquer; Red spirit lacquer; Pale brass lacquer; 
Lacquer for tin ; Lacquer varnish ; Deep gold-colored 
lacquer . . . . • . . . . . 211 

Lacquers for pictures, metal, wood or leather ; Directions 
for making lacquer ; Lacquer for dipped brass and for 
bronzed brass ; Deep gold-colored lacquer ; Gold-colored 
lacquer for brass not dipped and dipped . . .212 

Good lacquer for brass; Lacquer for di})ped brass ; Good 
lacquer ; Pale lacquer for tin plate ; Bed lacquer for 
brass; Pale lacquer for brass; Best lacquer for brass; 
Color for lacquer ; Lacquer for philosophical instru- 
ments ; Soap lacquers . . . . . . .213 

Imitation of Japanese lacquer . . . . . . 214 

Miscellaneous Cements. 
Armenian or diamond cement . . . • . .215 



tU L^O^^ TENTS 

Cement for mending eartlion and i;ln -?;w;ire 

stoneware; Iron rust cement . . 216 

Composition for making architectural ornaments in relief 
Variety's mastic; Electrical and chemical apparatus 
cement ; Cement for iron tubes, boilers, etc. . iM 7 

Oment for ivory, mother of jjcarl, etc. ; Cement for holes 
in castings ; Cement for coppersmiths and engineers , A 
cheap cement ; Plumbers" cement ; Cement for bottle 
corks ; China cement ...... 213 

Cement for stone structures , Roofing cement ; Ammonia 
shellac cement . -. 219 

Cement for leather ; Marble cement ; A good cement : Ce- 
ment for marble-workers and coppersmiths ; Transparent 
cement for glass ; Cement to mend iron pots and pans . 22() 

Cement to render cisterns and casks water-tight ; Cement 
for repairing fractured bodies of all kinds ; Cement for 
cracks in wood 22! 

Cement for joining metals and wood ; Gasfitters' cement ; 
Impervious cement for apparatus, corks, etc. ; Cement fur 
fastening brass to glass vessels ; Cement for fastening 
blades, files, etc. ; Hj^draulic cement paint ; Sorefs ce- 
ments ; London mastic cement 223 

Keene's marble cement ; Martin's cement; Parian cement; 
Lowitz's cement for the protection of wood and stone 
against moisture . . . . . . . , 22i 

Important Metallic Alloys. 
Alloys of copper and zinc — Brass and similar ailoj-s . . 224 
Color of copper-zinc alloys ; Composition of various copper- 

zinc alloys 22C* 

Allo3^s of copper and tin ; Gun metal ; Steel bronze or 

Uchatius bronze ; Bell metal ; Speculum metal ; Art 

bronze 226 

Phosphor bronze ; Silicon bronze ; Manganese bronze . 227 
Delta metai ; Silveroid ; Cobalt bronze . . . • 228 

Aluminium bronze 229 

Alloys of copper, zinc and nickel, German silver, argeman 

or pakfong ; Britannia metal 230 



CONTENTS. tv 

Composition of various kinds of Britannia metal ; Readily 
fusible alloys .231 

Alloys of the noble metals ; A^arious alloys ; Yellow brass 
for turning ; Red bi-ass for turning ; Red brass to turn 
freely , Best red brass for fine castings ; Rolled brass ; 
Hard brass for casting ; Bell metal ; For bells of -clocks ; 
Metal for journal boxes ; Bearing metals for locomotives 232 

Brasses for locomotive side rods ; Brasses for locomotive 
driving boxes ; Queen's metal ; Hard white metal ; 
Metal for taking impressions ; Rivet metal ; Bullet metal; 
Bath metal ; Cock metal ; White metals . . .233 

Expansive metal ; Bronze for gilding ; Blanched copper ; 
Ormolu ; Stereotype metal ; Type metal ; Artificial gold 234 

Solders; Composition of soft solders .... 235 

Hard solders ; Solder for gold ; White solder for raised 
Britannia ware ; Solder for steel joints ; Solders for 
aluminium > . . 236 

Solder for aluminium bronze ; To solder platinum . . 237 

Metallic cement ; To color soft Bolder .... 238 

To join small band saws ; To make muriate of zinc ; To pre- 
pare borax for brazing ; Soldering iron and steel . . 239 

Joints . . . 241 

Miscellaneous Receipts. 

Paint for coating wire work ; Razor paste ; Cutting glass . 244 

Prepared liquid glue ; Liquid glues ; Marine glue ; Dex- 
trine or jferitish gum ; Liquid glue that keeps for years . 245 

Sealing wax for fi-uit cans ; Browning gun barrels ; Silver- 
ing powder for coating copper ; To prevent rusting ; 
Quick, bright dipping acid for brass which has been or- 
molued ; Dipping acid 246 

Grood dipping acid for cast brass ; Dipping acid ; Ormolu 
dipping acid for sheet brass or cast brass ; To prepare 
brass work for ormolu dipping ; To repair old nitric acid 
ormolu dips ; Vinegar bronze for brass .... 247 

Brown bronze dip ; Grreen bronze dip ; Aquafortis bronze 
dip ; Olive bronze dip for brass ; Brown bronze paint for 
copper vessels ; Bronze for all kinds of metals ; Bronze 



xvi CONTENTS. 

paint for iron or brass ; To bronze gun barrels ; Silveiing 

by heat . 248 

Mixture for silvering ; To separate silver from copper ; 

Solvent for gold ; Couj position used in welding cast steel ; 

Cast iron cement ; Beautiful and durable bronze upon tin 

and tin alloys 249 

Bronzing gas fixtures 250 

To bronze plaster of paris figures ; To cleanse plaster of paris 

busts and statuettes ; Coppering of iron rollers for calico 

printing 251 

To tin copper and brass ; To tin iron sauce-pans . . 252 

Cold tinning : To tin small articles 253 

Galvanizing brass and copper ; Cheap and quick method of 

coloring metais 254 

Electroplating pewter surfaces 255 

Brown tint for iron and steel ; EnameUing metaJs . . 256 
Enamel for watch faces ; To polish gold and silver lace . 257 
Cleaning tinware : Solvents for rubber .... 258 
Etching solution for brass : Compound for casts . . 259 

Imitation gold varnish : Inks for marking tinware i Red ink 

for rribber stamps 2fi0 

Ink for brass stamps ; Indelible ink for stamps ; Resharpen- 

ing fijes ; To repair broken belting 261 

Strength of Materials. 
Bar of iron ; Bridges ; Floors ; Roofs ; Beams ; Cast I'on 

beams ; Beams 262 

Models proportioned to machines ... . 264 

List of metals arranged according to their strengtb . . 265 
List of woods arranged according to their strength ; Strength 
of hempen cords ; Rule for finding the weight in pounds 

which a hempen rope will support 266 

Method of increasing the suspensive power of timber ; 
Strength of rectangular columns or timbers in resisting 

compression ... 268. 

Cohesive power of bars of metal one inch square, in tons ; 
Relative strength of cast and malleable iron ; Method of 
testing metals ... 269 



CONTENTS. xvlx 

Tables of Strength of Materials. 

Strength of chains ; Common close-linked cable chain ; 
Steel-linked cable chain 272 

Strength and weight of short-linked crane chain . . 273 

Strength and weight of steel-linked cable chain . . . 274 

Strength of iron wire ropes ; Strength and weight of 
hempen ropes 275 

Strength of drawn lead pipes of the ordinary standard 
weights 276 

Strength of timbers to resist crushing strains, in pounds and 
tons per square inch 277 

Table of the strength, extensibility and stiffness of metals, 
cast iron being 1, or unity . . . . . . 278 

Table of the strength, extensibility and stiffness of woods, 
cast iron being 1 , or unity ; Effect of remelting on the 
strength of cast iron 279 

Table showing the average crushing load of different ma- 
terials, or the weight under which they will crumble ; 
Table showing the tensile strength, or the strain that will 
pull different metals asunder on a straight pull . . 280 

Table showing the tensile strength of different kinds of 
wood 281 

Index 283 

2 



TIN, SHEBT-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE 
WORKER. 



RULES FOR DESCRIBING PATTERNS. 



A CONE, 




To describe an Envelope for a Cone, — Let ABI (Fig. i) 
be the given cone. From I as centre, with the radius lA, 
describe the arc CD ; make CD equal in length to the 
circumference of AB (which can be found by a reference 
to the table of the Circumferences of Circles ; draw the 
lines CI and DI ; then the figure CDI will be that of the 
required surface of the cone. 

Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, drawing the 
lines parallel to CI and DI, as shown by the dotted lines. 

To describe a Frustum of a Cone. — Let AB (Fig. 2) equal 
diameter of large end ; FH diameter of small end ; GK 
altitude. Produce AF and BH until they meet at E ; with 
E as centre, and the radii EF and EA, describe the arcs 
CD and TJ ; set off CD equal to that portion of the cir- 

(1) 



2 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 




cumference of AB required for a pattern ; draw the lines 
CI and DJ, cutting the centre at E. 

Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, drawing the 
lines parallel to CI and DJ, as shown by the dotted lines. 

Obs. — The term altitude denotes perpendicular height; 
as from G to K in Fig. 2. 

CAN TOP OR DECK FLANGE. 




■<S- 3- 



To describe a Can Top or Deck J^lange.—Ltt AB (Fig. 3) 



FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 3 

equal diameter of can, or base of a flange ; CD diameter 
of opening in the top; FG altitude. Produce AC and BD 
until they meet at E ; with E as centre, and the radii ED 
and EB, describe the curves IJ and HK ; set off IJ equal 
to the circumference of the base AB ; draw the lines IH 
and JK, cutting the centre at E. 
Edges to be allowed. 

FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 




To describe a Pattern for, or an Envelope for a Frustum 
of a Cone. — Describe the right angle ABE (Fig. 4) ; make 
BD the altitude ; draw the line CD at right angle to BE ; 
make AB equal one-half the diameter of the large end, CD 
one-half the diameter of the small end ; draw a line cutting 
the points A and C, and the line BE; with E as a centre 
and the radii EC and EA describe the arcs FG and HI ; 
set off FG equal to that portion of the circumference of 



4 TIN, SHEET-IEOX AXD COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

the smallest end required for a pattern, draw the lines HF 
and IG, cutting the centre at E. 

Edges for folding or lapping to be allowed, dra'vvmg the 
Unes parallel to HF and IG. 

When the work is to be riveted, punch the holes for the 
rivets on the lines HF and IG. 

When the work is to be wired, or a flange laid off. it 
must be allowed as shown by the dotted lines over the arc 
HI. 

OVAL. 

To describe a pattern for a Tapering Oval Article, to 
be in Four Sections. — Describe the bottom, the length and 
breadth required as in Fig. 5 ; describe the sides as in Figs. 
6 and 7. 

Describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 6 ) make BF the alti- 




cude, draw the line DF at right angle to BC ; make DF 
equal to AB in Fig. 5 : make AB equal to DF and the taper 
required on a side, draw a line cutting the points A and 
D, and the Ime BC. 

On any right line, as AB in Fig. 7, with the radii CD 
and CA, describe the arcs EF and CD, set off EF equal 
f-o EBF in Fig. 5 ; draw the lines CE and DF, cutting the 
centre at B. 



OVAL. 



5 



Edges to be allowed. 

Fig. 6, make EF equal to CD in Fig. 5 ; make GB equal 
to EF, and the taper required on a side ; draw a line cut- 
ting the points G and E, and the line BC. 

On any right line, as AB in Fig. 7, with the radii HL 




Fig. 6. 



and LK, describe the arcs IK and GH ; set off IK equal 
to FDG in Fig. 5, draw the lines GI and HK, cutting the 
centre at L. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal on all sides. 



6 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 




OVAL. 7 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval Article^ to be 
in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the length and 
breadth required as in Fig. 8 ; then describe the body as in 
Figs. 9 and lo. 

Describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 9 ; make BE the alti- 




tude, draw the line DE at right angle to BC ; make DE 
equal to AB in Fig. 8 ; make AB equal to DE and the taper 
required on a side, draw a line cutting the points A and D, 
and the line BC. 

On any right line, as AB in Fig. 10, with the radii CE 
and CL, describe the arcs EF and CD; set off EF equal 



8 TIN, SHEET-IEOX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

to FEE in Fig. 8; draw the lines CE and DF, cutting the 
centre at B. 

Fig. 9, make GE equal to CD in Fig. 8 ; make FB equal 



A 








.L 


/ 



Fig. lo. 

to GE, and the taper required on a side ; draw a line cut- 
ting the points F and G, and the line BC; with the radius 
HG and, in Fig. lo, E and F as centres, cut the lines CB 
and DB^ as at L and M ; with L and M as centres describe 
the arcs FK and EH ; also, the arcs DI and CG ; set off 
FK and EH, equal to ED in Fig. 8 ; draw the lines IK 
and GH, cutting the centres at M and L. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal on all sides. 



OVAL. 9 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval Article^ to be 




Fig. I I. 



Fig. 12, 



in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the length and 
breadth required as in Fig. ii, then describe the body as 



10 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPEK-PLATE WORKER. 




F'£ 'S- 



OVAL. 11 

in Figs. 12 and 13 ; describe the right angle ABC, Fig, 12 ; 
make BE the altitude, draw the line DE at right angle to 
BC ; make DE equal to FC in Fig. 1 1 ; make AB equal to 
DE and the taper required on a side ; draw a line cutting 
the points A and D, and the line BC. 

On any right line, as AB in Fig. 13, with the radii CD 
and CA, describe the arcs CD and EF, set off CD equal to 
CD in Fig. 1 1 ; draw the lines EC and FD, cutting the 
centre at B. 

Fig. 12, make FE equal to AC in Fig. 11; make GB 
equal to FE, and the taper required on a side, draw a line 
cutting the points G and F, and the line BC, with the ra- 
dius JF, and in Fig. 13, D as a centre, cut the line FB, as 
at K ; with K as a centre describe the arc DH ; also, the 
arc FG ; set off DH equal to BC in Fig, 11 ; draw the line 
GH, cutting the centre at K. Fig. 12, make HE equal to 
GE in Fig. 1 1 ; make IB equal to HE, and the taper re- 
quired on a side ; draw a line cutting the points I and H, 
and the line BC ; with the radius KH, and in Fig. 13, C as 
a centre, cut the line EB, as at L ; with L as a centre, de- 
scribe the arc IC ; also, the arc JE ', set off IC equal to 
DE, in Fig. 11 ; draw the line JI, cutting the centre at L. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal on all sides. 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval Article. — ■ 
Describe the bottom, the length and breadth required as 
in Fig. 14; describe the body as in Figs. 15 and 16; de- 
scribe the right angle ABC, Fig. 15 ; make BE the altitude, 
draw the line DE at right angle to BC ; make FE equal 
HG in Fig. 14; make GB equal to FE and the taper 
required on a side ; draw a line cutting the points G and F, 
and the line BC. 

On any right line, as AB in Fig. 16, with the radii HF 
and HG, describe the arcs CD and EF, set off CD equal 



12 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

to IGF in Fig. 14 ; draw the lines EC and FD, cutting the 
centre at G. 

Fig. 15, make DE equal to AB in Fig. 14 ; make AB 
equal to DE, and the taper required on a side ; draw a line 
cutting the points A and D, and the line BC ; with the 




Fig:. 14. 



Fig- <5- 



radius CD, and, in Fig. 16, with I and H as centres, cut the 
lines GL and GM, as at M and L ; with M and L as cen- 
tres, describe the arcs HI and HI ; also, the arcs JK and 
JK; set off HI and HI equal to IB, in Fig. 14; draw the 
lines JH and KI, cutting the centres at L and M. Fig. 



OVAL. 



IS 



15, make IE equal to CD in Fig. 14 ; make JB equal to IE, 
and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting the 
points J and I, and the line BC with the radius KI, and in 
Fig. 16, O and N as centres, cut the lines LB and MB, as at 
R and S; with R and S as centres, describe the arcs NO 
and NO, also, the arcs PQ and PQ ; set off NO and NO 
equal to BD in Fig. 14; draw the lines QO and PN, cutting 
the centres at S and R. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper must be equal on all sides. The pattern can 
be cut in any number of sections. 



Fig. 19. 





> E 


■ -*. 


\ 

A 


A B 
B 


/ 


c 




\ 




E 




L 




J 



'g- ly- 




To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Oblong 
Article, the Sides to be Straight with Quarter Circle Cor- 
ners, to be in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, the 
length and breadth required as in Fig. 17; the body as in 



14 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATP: WORKER. 

Figs, iS and 19; describe the right angle ABC, Fig. iS; 
make BE the altitude, draw the line DE at right angle to 
BC ; make DE equal to EC in Fig. 17 ; make AB equal to 
DE and the taper required on a side, draw a line cutting 
the points A and D and the line BC. 

Fig. 19, make AD and BE equal to AD in Fig. 18 ; make 
AB equal to AB in Fig. 17: draw the lines DM and EN, 
Fig. 18 with the radius CD, and in Fig. 19, A and B as cen- 
tres, cut the lines DM and EX, as at M and X ; with M 
and X" as centres, describe the arcs BC and AI ; also, the 
arcs EF and DH ; set off BC and AI equal to BC, in Fig. 
17 : draw the lines HI and FC, cutting the centres M and 
X'. Draw the lines FG and CL at right angle to FX : also, 
the line KH and JI at right angle to HM : make CL and 
JI equal to one-halt" of CD. in Fig. 17, draw the lines KJ 
and GL at right angle to KH and FG. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper to Le equal on all sides. 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Oblong 
Article, the Sides to be StraigJit. one End to be a Semi- 
circle, the other End to be Straipit with quarter Circle Cor- 
miers, to be in Two Sections. — Describe the bottom, tlie 
length and breadth required as in Fig. 20 : the body as in 
Figs. 21 and 22; describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 21; 
make BG the altitude, draw the line DG at right angle to 
BC ; make DG equal to AF in Fig. 20 : make AB equal to 
DG and the taper required on a side : draw a line cutting 
the points A and D. and tlie line BC : make FG equal to 
GD in Fig. 20 : make EB equal to FG and the taper re- 
quired on a side : draw a line cutting the points E and F 
and the line BC. 

Fig. 22, make AC and BD equal to DA in Fig. 21 ; make 
CD and AB equal to BC in Fig. 20 ; draw the lines CK and 
DL in Fig. 21 : ^^'ith the radius CD, and, in Fig. 22, A as a 
centre, cut the line CK as at Kj with K as a centre, de- 



OVAL. 



15 



scribe the arc AI, also, the arc CJ ; set off AI equal to AB, 
in Fig. 20, draw the line JI, cutting the centre at K. 

Fig. 21, with the radius HF,and in Fig. 22, B as a centre, 
cut the line DL, as at L j with L as a centre, describe the 



A E 



E 




6 
F 


"A 

D 

P 


L 




J 



\g. 20. 





g. 22. 



arc BF, also the arc DE ; set off BF equal to CD, in Fig. 
20 ; draw the line EF, cutting the centre at L ; draw the 
lines FG and EH at right angles to EL; make FG, equal 
to DE, in Fig. 20* draw the line HG at right angle to EH. 



16 TIX SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



Edges to be allowed. 

The taper to be equal on all sides. 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Oval or Oblong 
Article, the Sides to be Straight, with Semi-cicrle Ends, to 
be in Two Sections —Xyt^Q-xih^ the bottom, the length and 




Pig- 23- 




Fig. 84- 




breadth required as in Fig. 23; the body as in Figs. 24 

and 35. " 

Describe the right angle ABC, Fig. 24 ; make BE the 
altitude ; draw the line DE at right angle to BC ; make 
DE equal to AB in Fig. 23 : make AB equal to DE and the 
taper required on a side ; draw a line cutting the points A 



OVAL. If 

and D, and the line BC, Fig. 25 ; make AC and BD equal 
to AD in Fig. 24. 

Make AB and CD equal to DC in Fig. 23 ; draw the lines 
CI and DJ, Fig. 25 ; with the radius CD and, in Fig. 25, A 
and B as centres, cut the lines CI and DJ as at I and J ; 
with I and J as centres, describe the arcs AH and BF ; 
also, the arcs CG and DE ; set off AH and BF equal to 
CB, in Fig. 23 ; draw the Hues GH and EF, cutting the 
centre at I and J. 

Edges to be allowed. 

The taper to be equal on all sides. 

In a large article it may be more convenient to lay out 
the end-pieces to fit the semi-circles, and join them to the 
sides, as at D and C, in Fig. 23. 

To describe a Pattern for a Fish-kettle with Straight 
Sides. — Suppose Fig. 24 to be the shape of hollowing side 
and end-views, and Fig. 26 the shape of the kettle. Divide 
the length of curve from centre to end in an indefinite 
number of equal points, or take the length of curve with a 
strip of tin (which is the most accurate), then draw a line 
FG on a sheet of tin ; set off the points equal in number 
to those round the curve at each side of the centre, which 
will be the length of the cover before it is hollowed (of 
course edging on must be allowed for). The same process 
must be gone through with regard to the width, but it is 
necessary to obtain the length of the curve at A, and the 
point taken as before and set off, as shown at H (Fig. 26). 
This done, we find that the sides of the pattern are a little 
curved, though they are wanted straight when finished. 
These curves may be made with the compasses, but to be 
perfectly true there should be a greater number of points, 
BCDE, taken, and curve drawn through the points by free 
hand. This process of obtaining a pattern cannot fail ; it 
is certain to be right so long as the hollowing is done right. 
The same process will answer in describing patterns of 
2 



18 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 




Fig. 26. 



kettles with curved sides, /. e., a true oval or ellipse. A 
round article will also be made the proper size, if the 
length of curve be taken at which the cover or bottom must 
be finished. 

To draw the Plan of an Oblong Taper Bath, the Size 
of the Top and Bottom, the Height, and the Slant at the 
Head being given. — To draw DEFC (Fig. 29), the plan of 
the top : Draw AB equal to the given length of the top, 
and through A and B draw lines perpendicular to AB. 
Make AE and AD each equal to half the width of the top at 
the head of the bath, and BF and BC each equal to half the 
width of the top at the toe ; and join EF and DC. Next 
from E mark off along EF and ED equal distances EG and 
EH, according to the size of the round corner required at 
the head. Through G and H draw lines perpendicular to EF 



OVAL. 



19 



and ED respectively, intersecting in O, and with O as 
centre and OG as radius, describe an arc HG to form ttie 
corner. The round corners at DFC, etc., are drawn in 
manner. 



IIKC 




•ig. 27. 



B B- 

Fig. 28. 



To draw the plan of the bottom, let the angle A^'A'A 
(Fig. 27) be the angle of the inclination of the slant at the 
head, and A'A'' the length of the slant. Through A" 




ig. 29. 



draw A^'A perpendicular to AA', then AA' will be the dis- 
tance between the lines, in plan, of the top and bottom at 
the head. MakeAA' (Fig. 29) equal to AA' (Fig. 27) and 
A'B' equal to the length of the botton^. Through A' and 



20 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

B' draw lines eacK perpendicular to AB ; make A'E' and 
A'D' each equal to half the width of the bottom at the 
head, and B'F' and B'C equal to half the width of the 
bottom at the toe. Join E'F' and D'C. The round corner 
of the bottom at the head must be drawn in proj)ortion to 
the round corner of the top at.tlie head, and this is done 
as follows : Join EE' and produce it to meet AB in P and 
join HP by a line cutting D'E' in H ; make E'G' equal to 
E'H', and complete the corner from centre O' obtained as 
was the centre O, Draw the other corners in a similar 
way, and this will complete the plan required. The D 
corner is like the E corner ; the corners also at F and C 
correspond. Similarly with the E' and D', and F' and Of 
corners. 

If the length of the bath is given and the length of 
slant at (but not its inclination; head or toe, the distance 
AA' can be found by drawmg two lines A"A, A'A (Fig. 27) 
perpendicular to one another and meeting in A, and mak- 
ing AA'^ equal to the given height ; then, with A" as 
centre and A'' A', the given length of tlie slant at the head, 
as radius, describe an arc cutting AA' in A'. Then AA' 
is the distance required. Similarly (Fig. 28) the distance 
BB' can be found. 

To draiv the Plan of a Hip-bath or of a Sitz-bath. — 
Fig. 30 is a side elevation of the bath, drawn here only to 
make the problem clearer, not because it is necessary for 
the working. 

The bottom of a hip-bath or a sitz-bath is an ordinary 
oval. The portion X'F of the top is parallel to the bottom 
A'B', and the whole XX' top, the portion FXE of the bath 
being removed, is also an ordinary oval. By the plan of 
the bath is meant the plan of XX'B'A' portion of it : no 
more being required for the drawing of the pattern of the 
bath. 

We will first suppose the given dimensions to be those 



OVAL. 



21 



of the bottom and the XX' top of the bath, also heigiit of 
the bath in front. 

First draw A'D'B'C (Fig. 31) the plan of the bottom by 
Fig. 8, p. 6. To draw the plan of the XX' top (Fig. 3a) 





Fig. 30. 

set off OA and OB each equal to half the given length of 
that top, and OC and OD each equal to half its given 
width. The plan of the XX' top can now be drawn as 
was that of the bottom. This completes, as stated above, 




all that is necessary of the plan of the bath to enable its 
pattern to be drawn. 

If the length of the XX' top (Fig. 30) is not given, but 
ihe inclination of the slant at front and back, these incli- 



22 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

nations being the same, the required length can be deter- 
mined as follows : 

Make the angle AA'E (Fig. 32 j equal to the given incli- 
nation. Through A' draw A'H perpendicular to AA' and 
equal to the given heiglit of the bath in front ; through H 
draw HX parallel to AA' and cutting A'E in X, and draw 
XA perpendicular to AA'; then AA' will be the distance 
in plan, at back and front, between the curve of the bot- 
tom and the curve of the. XX' top. Make AA' (Fig. 31) 
and BB' each equal to AA' (Fig. 32) ; .then AB will be the 
length required. 




^'^ 8 

F'E- 33- 



If the length of the XX' top of the bath (Fig. 30) is 
not given, nor the inclination of the slant at front and 
back, but only the length of the slant at front, the required 
length can be ascertained as follows : 

Draw two lines XB, B'B perpendicular to one another 
and meeting in B; make BX equal to the given height of 
the bath in front, and witli X as centre, and radius equal 
to the length of the slant at the front, describe an arc 
cutting RB' in B'. Make A'A and B'B i^Fig. 31) each equal 
to BB' i Fig. 331, then AB is the length wanted. The 
remainder of the plan can be drawn as above described. 



OVAL. as 

By a little addition to Fig. 32 we get at the back portion 
of the side elevation of the bath. It will be useful to do 
this. Produce A'X and make A'E equal to the slant at 
back, which must, of course, be given. Then on the 
plan (Fig. 31), E being the meeting point of the end and 
side curves of the oval ADBC, draw EF perpendicular to 
AB. Make XF (Fig. 32) equal to AF (Fig. 31); join 
FE ; this completes the elevation required. 

To describe a Frustum of an Oblique Pyramid. — I. 
Given the plan of the frustum and its height. 

Let ABCDD'A'B'C (Fig. 34) be the plan of the frus- 




G^'^zz:,^^"' 



Fig:- 34- 

turn (here of a square pyramid). Produce AA', BB', etc., 
the plans of the edges to meet in a point V ; this point is 
the plan of the apex of the pyramid of which the frustum 
is a part. Join O, the centre of the square which is the 
plan of the large end of the frustum, to V. The line OV 
will pass through o\ the centre of the plan of the small 



34 TIN, SHEET-IRON AXD COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

end.; 00' will be the plan of the axis of the frustum, and 
OV the plan of the axis of the pyramid of which the frus- 
tum is a portion. 

Draw XX parallel to OV; through V draw VV perpen- 
dicular to XX and cutting it in v. Make vx equal to 
the given height of the frustum, and through x draw xx 
parallel to XX ; through O draw OQ perpendicular to XX 




and meeting it in Q, and through O' draw O' Q' perpen- 
dicular to XX and cutting xx in /. Join Q / and pro- 
duce it to intersect v V in V. Next make va, vb, vc, vd, 
equal to VA, A^B, VC, VD respectively ; join a, b, c, and 
^ to Y' by lines cutting xx in points a' b' (/ and d' ; aa', 
bV , etc., are then the lengths of the edges of the frustum. 
To draw the pattern with the seam at AA' ; Draw VA 



OVAL. 25 

(Fig. 35) equal to V a (Fig. 34) ; with V as centre and 
V b \Fig. 34) as radius describe an arc b, and with A as 
centre and AB (Fig. 34) as radius describe an arc inter- 
secting arc b in B; witli V c (Fig. 34) as radius and V as 
centre describe an arc c, and with BC (Fig. 34) and B' 
as centre describe an arc intersecting the arc c in C. 
Next with V'^/and V a (Fig. 34) as radii and V as centre 
describe arcs d and a ; with C as centre and radius CD 
(Fig. 34) describe an arc intersecting arc d in D ; and 
with DA (Fig. 34) as radius and D as centre describe an 
arc intersecting the arc a in A. Join A, B, G, D, and A to 
V; make AA^ 6B^ CC, DD' respectively equal to aa',bb\ 
cc',dd', (Fig. 34),andjoinAB,BC, CD, DA, A'B',B'C', CD' , 
etc. Then ABCDAA'D'C'B'A' is the pattern required. 

The dotted circles (Fig. 34) through the angular points 
of the plans of the ends show the plans of the ends of the 
frustum of the oblique cone which would envelop the 
frustum of the pyramid. From the similarity of the con- 
struction above to that for the pattern of a frustum of an 
oblique cone, it will be evident that the edges of the frus- 
tum have been treated as generating lines of the frustum 
of the oblique cone, in which the frustum of the pyramid 
could be inscribed. 

Should it be inconvenient to draw XX in conjunction 
with the plan of the pyramid, draw XX quite apart, and from 
any point v in it draw v V perpendicular to XX ; make vx 
equal to the height of the frustum and draw xx parallel to 
XX. Make va, vb, vc, zv/equal to VA, VB, VC, VD (Fig. 
35) respectively ; and make xa' , xb' , xc' , xd' equal to VA', 
VB', VC, VD', (Fig. 34), respectively. Join aa , bb' , cd 
and dd' by lines produced to meet z^V in V, and pro- 
ceed as above stated. 

II. Given the dimensions of the two ends of the frus- 
tum, the slant of one face and its inclination (the slant of 



^6 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER, 



the face of a pyramid is a line meeting its end lines and 
perpendicular to them). 

Draw (Fig. ;^6) a line EE" equal to the given slant, 
make the angle E"EE' equal to the given inclination and 
let fall E"E perpendicular to EE'. Draw ABCD (Fig. 
34), the plan of the large end of the frustum, and let BC 
be the plan of the bottom edge of the face whose slant is 
given. Bisect BC in E and draw EE' perpendicular to 
BC and equal to EE' (Fig. s^)- Through E' draw B'C 
parallel to BC ; make EC and E' B' each equal to half the 
length of the top edge of the BC face, through C and B' 
draw CD' and B'A' parallel to CD and BA ; make CD' 
and B'A' each equal to B C ; join D'A', also AA', BB', 
CC and DD' ; this will complete the plan of the frustum. 
E'E" (Fig. ;^6) is the height of the frustum. The re- 
mainder of the construction is now the same as in I. 

To describe without Long Radii a Frustum of an Oblique 




Pig- 37- 
Pyramid, the Plan oftJie Frustum and its Height being given. 
—Let ABCDD'A'B'C (Fig. 37) be the plan of the frus- 
tum. From any point E in BC draw EE' perpendicular 
to BC and B'C of the frustum. Draw E'E" perpendic- 
ular to EE' and equal to the height (which either is 



OVAL. 



^ 



given or can be found as in II. of last problem), and join 
EE", then EE" is the true length of a slant of the face BC 
B'C of the frustum. Join DC and find its true length 
(DC") by drawing C'C" perpendicular to DC and equal to 
the height of frustum and joining DC. Next join D'A and 
B'A ; through D' and B' draw lines D'A", B'B" perpen- 
dicular to D'A and BA respectively, and make D'A" and 
B'A" each equal to the given height of the frustum ; join 




Rg. 38. 

AA" and AB", then AA" and AB" are the true lengths of 
D'A and B'A respectively. 

To draw the pattern of the face BCB'C draw EE' 
(Fig. 38) equal to EE" (Fig. 37), and through E and 
E' draw BC and B'C perpendicular to EE'. Make EC, 
EB, E'C and E'B' equal to EC, EB, E'C and E'B' 
(Fig. 37) respectively ; join CC and BB' ; this completes 
the pattern of tlie face. The patterns of the other faces 
are found as follows : 

With C (Fig. 38) and C as centres and DC" and CD 
(l*io- 37) ^s radii respectively, describe arcs intersecting 



2S TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

in D ; join CD, draw CD' parallel to CD and equal to 
CD' (Fig. 37;; and join DD'. With D' and D (Fig. 
^8) as centres and AA" and DA (Fig. 37) as radii respec- 
tively, describe arcs intersecting in A ; join DA, draw D'A' 
parallel to DA and equal to D'A' (Fig. 37) as radii respec- 
tively, describe arcs intersecting in A ; join DA, draw D'A' 
parallel to DA and equal to D'A' (Fig. 37), and join A to 
A'. Next with B' and B as centres and AB" and BA 
(Fig. 37) respectively as radii, describe arcs intersecting 
in A; join BA and draw B'A' parallel to BA and equal 
to B'A' (Fig. 37). Join AA', and this will complete the 
pattern required. 

To drmv the Fatteni of a Hood. — The plan of the hood 



C' 



A / A' D \ D 

^ /^ C 



Fig. 



39- 



is necessarily given, or else the dimensions from which to 
draw it. Also the height of the hood, or the slant of one 
of its faces. The hood is here supposed to be a body of 
unequal taper with top and base parallel, but not a frustum 
of an oblique pyramid. 

Let ABCDA'B'C'D' (Fig. 39) be the given plan of the 
hood fa hood of three faces'), AD being the "wall line," 
AB and DC perpendicular to AD and BC parallel to it; 



OVAL. 



20 



also let the length of FC, a slant of face BB'C'C, be 
given. Draw C'F perpendicular to BC and through C 
draw C'C" perpendicular to C"F, and with F as centre and 
radius equal to the given length, describe an arc cutting 
CC" in C\ Join FC" ; then CC is the height of the 
hood which we need. If the height of the hood is given 
instead of the length FC", make C'C" equal to the height 
and join FC'^ which will be the true length of FC. 
Next, through C draw C'E perpendicular to CD ; draw 
C'C perpendicular to C'E, make C'C". equal to the height 
and join EC". Now produce C'B' to meet AB in G j draw 




ig. 40. 



B'B" perpendicular to B'G and equal to the height and 
join GB''. 

To draw the pattern of the hood : Draw FC (Fig. 40) 
equal to FC''-(Fig. 39) ; through F and C draw BC and 
B'C, each perpendicular to FC; make FB equal to FB (Fig. 
39) ; make FC equal to FC (Fig. 39) and CB' equal to CB' 
(Fig. 39). Join BB' and CC; then BB'CC will be the 
pattern of the face, of which BB'CC (Fig. 39) is the plan. 

To draw the pattern of the face CD'DC (Fig. 39) : With 
C and C (Fig. 40) as centres and EC" and CE (Fig. 39) 
as radii respectively, describe arcs intersecting in E. Join 



30 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

CE and produce it, making CD equal to CD (Fig. 39), 
and through C draw CD' parallel to CD and equal to CD' 
'I'^jg- 39)- Joi^^ DD', then CCDD' is the pattern of the 
face of which CCDD' (Fig. 39) is the plan. With B' and B 
as centres and radii respectively equal to B"G and BG 
(Fig. 39j, describe arcs intersecting in G. Join BG and 
produce it, making BA equal to BA (Fig. 39), and through 
B' draw B'A' parallel to BA and equal to B'A' (Fig. 39). 
Join AA' and the pattern for the hood is complete. 

Covering of Circular Roofs, etc. — Circular roofs may be 
covered upon two different principles : 







\ ' y^A"^ 


T!t>^^ 


\J^ 




e/ _ 


\ 




^ 



A C 

Fig. 41. 

First Method. Assume the vertical section, or axis, to be 
divided into a number of equal parts, and the roof, or 
figure, cut by planes through the points of division par- 



DOME COVERS, 



31 



allel to the base ; and then consider the portions of the 
figure as so many frustums of a cone; the surface of each 
frustum can then be determined as by Fig. 41, p. 30. 

Second Method. Divide the circumference of the base 
into a number of equal parts, and assume sections to be 
made perpendicular through these points of division ; then 
estimate the surface of each of these divisions on the sur- 
face of the figure. 

To cove}' a Dojne by the First Method. — Let ABC (Fig. 
41) be the section of a dome. Draw the axis DB; pro- 
duce to J ; divide the curve of one-half the figure into 




equal i)arts, as EFG and H, the > width of these divisions 
being the width required by that of the metal with which 



S2 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

the dome is to be covered ; produce AE, EF, FG, GH 
and HB severally, until they intersect the axis BD ; then 
[for example] from the point I, with the radii IG and IF, 
describe the curves GM, FN ; then set off that portion of 
the circumference of the base FL required for a pattern to 
cover the course FG. 

In the same manner, the covering for the oth^r portion 
can be found. 

To cover a Dome by the Second Method — Let ABC, -Fig. 
42, be the section of a dome; then the length of a course 




^•|g• 43- 

of covering is obtained as follows : The length of the 
course BF is equal to the curve AB, and EG the breadth 
of it; join ED, and the lines i, 2, 3 and 4, intersected 
thereby, will be the half breadth (for the vertical BD) of 
tne course at the corresponding lines on BF, through v/hich 
points a line can be drawn which will give the form of the 
course required. 



DOME COVEES. 33 

To ascertain the Outlines of a Course of Covering to a 
Dome, without reference to a Section of the Dome. — Let AB, 
Fig. 43, be the breadth of the course. Bisect it at B by 
the perpendicular CE ; make BE equal to the length of the 
arc from the base of the dome to the top of it (which may 
be found either by measurement or calculation) ; divide 
the semi-circle ACD into any number of equal parts, and 
draw the lines, parallel to BD ; divide BE into the same 
number of equal parts, and draw lines parallel to AD ; 
mark ordinates on each side of BE ; as i, 2, 3 and 4 equal 
to the lines of BCD, and a curve drawn through their ter- 
minations I, 2, 3 and 4 on both sides will give the outline 
of the course. 

Covering of a Hipped Roof. — In Fig. 44, abed is the 
plan of a building to be covered by a hipped roof. To 
draw the plan of the roof bisect the angles of the parallel- 
ogram, and the bisectors meeting in e and / will form the 
plans of the hip-lines, and the line joining e and /will be 
the plan of the ridge. Let it now be required to project 
the elevation from this plan. Draw any horizontal, as AB, 
Fig. 45, and the perpendiculars from c, e,f d, cutting AB 
in g, h, i, J, and produce h and / indefinitely. Produce the 
perpendicular at e until it reaches // then it will be clear 
that >^ / is the width of the roof trusses (at k I and m n), 
which would be at right angles io a b and c d. 

Draw k' I' (Fig. 46) equal to k I in Fig. 44, and at the 
middle point O, draw the perpendicular o p equal to the 
real height of the truss, which is, of course, a matter de- 
pendent on the taste or defined purpose of the architect. 
This triangle will then be the shape of the truss at this 
point, and is the section across the roof. 

Make h q and / r in Fig. 45 equal to ^ / in Fig. 46. 
Draw^^, q r and ry, which will complete the elevation, 
and this will also be the longitudinal section through the 
ridge. 
3 



34 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

We now have to find the real length of the hip. To do 
thiS; draw/i-, Fig. 44, equal to op, Fig. 46, and at right 

Fig- 45- 




Z' 44- 



angles iofd. Join ds, then the right-angled triangle, dfs, 
is the true shape of the hip truss. This will be understood 




by cutting a piece of cardboard of the shape described and 
placing it on its edge, d f. Then it will be seen that d s 
will be the length of the hip. 



HIPPED ROOF. 3^ 

In Developing the Covering of this Roof it will, of course; 
be understood that the surface will consist of four planes, 
which will meet at the hip-lines. Now it has already been 
shown that the ends are triangles, of which a e c and bfd 
are the plans ; the length of lines a c and b d remain un- 
altered, but the real length oi c e, a e, bf, df has been 
proved to be ds. Therefore on d b and ac construct isos- 
celes triangles, having d s for the two remaining sides ; 
these triangles, then, ate and b n d, are the true shape of 
the coverings of the ends of the roof. Now from c and d, 
with radius c t, describe arcs cutting the perpendiculars k 
and m m V and w. Join d 7v, v c, and w v. Then the 
trapezoid c v w d \z the development of one of the planes 
forming the side of the roof-covering. 

The same length set off on the perpendiculars In will 
give the points x y, which will complete the fourth plane. 

To find the form of the hip when the roof is a groined 
one : It will be clear that if a spectator stands on the plat- 
form of a railroad at the side of a semicircular arch by 
which a road is carried over it, he will then see that, while 
the face or elevation of the arch, where it crosses the rail- 
road at right angles, is semicircular, its span being, of 
course, the diameter of the circle, of which it is half; the 
length from the springing near which he is standing, to the 
most distant springing (that is, the one on the opposite of 
the line at the other end of the arch) will be much longer; 
yet the arch there is not any higher, although its span, thus 
taken crosswise, is longer, because the diagonal of a square 
or other rectangle is longer than any one of its sides. 
The principle on which to find the curve which would 
reach from the springing at which the spectator is standing, 
to the one referred to, is also shown in Fig. 47. 

On a b describe a semicircle, and from the points i, 2, 
3, 4 erect perpendiculars cutting the semicircle in i', 2', 3', 
4', or mark off a7ty divisions in the diagonal, and from 



36 TIN, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

them draw perpendiculars to a b. Now from the points 
where the lines i', 2', 3', 4', etc., cut a c draw lines per- 
pendicular \.o a c ; make each of these equal in height to 
those correspondingly lettered in the semicircle, and the 





/ 


/^ 










\ 


\ 


y 

1 
1 
1 

« 

1 
1 
1 
1 

{ 


\ 


3 

\ 

/ 

/ 
\ 


4 

/ 
< 


5 

1 

y 

/ 


6 

/ 


7 

\ 
/ 


fi |d 1 

i 





ig- 47- 



curve drawn through their extremities will be the form re- 
quired. 

In Fig. 48 ABCD is the plan of a building to be cov- 
ered by a groined roof. The arch, the springing of which 
is AB and CD, is a semicylinder. The arch which has its 



HIPPED ROOF. 



37 



Springing in AC and BD, being of the same height but of 
wider span, is semi-cylindroid. 

A cylindf'oid is a solid body of the character of a cylin- 
der ; but whilst in a cylinder all sections taken at right 
.angles to the axis are circles, in the cylindroid all such sec- 
tions are ellipses. It is, in fact, sl flattened cylmdQX. The 




Fig 48. 



curve of the groin is then generated by the penetration of 
a cylindroid and cylinder. 

On AB describe the semicircle which represents the fact 
of the arch, at the ends AB and CO, and divide it into ar.v 
number of equal parts, a, b, c, etc. It is only necessary to 
use the quadrant, as throughout the working the measure- 
ments are the same on each side. Draw the diagonals AD 
and BC. From a, b, c, d, ^,/draw lines perpendi'^nlar to 



5X TIN, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER- PLATE WORKER. 

AB, cutting the diagonal AD in a' , b' , c' , d\ /,/', and set 
off the same distances on the other half of the diagonal. 

From these points draw lines at right angles to AC, and 
passing through it in points i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. 
Mark off on the perpendicular 6 the height df^ equal to the 
height of the semicircle/, and on the perpendiculars 5, 4, 
4, 3, 2, I, mark off in succession the heights of the perpen- 
diculars e, a,f, c, d, a, as contained between the semicircle 
and its diameter AB. 

Set off the same heights on the corresponding perpen- 
diculars, on the other side of 6 /, and the curve traced 
through these points will be a semi-ellipse, which is the 
section of the semi-cylindroid forming- the arch of which 
AC and BD are the springings. 

We now proceed to find the curve of the groin ; and it 
will be evident that although the span is still further in- 
creased in length, the height of the different points in the 
curve will be the same as in both the previous elevations. 
The span then of the arch at the groin is the diagonal AD 
(or BC) to which the divisions a, b, c, d, e,f, have already 
been transferred from the semicircle, and from these the 
lines were carried at right angles to AC, on which the 
height of the points in the curve were set off. 

These points, viz., a', b' , c' , d' , e', /', in the diagonal, 
then, will be seen to be common to both arches, since they 
are the plans of the points in the roof where the cylindrical 
and cylindroidal bodies penetrate each other. At these 
points, therefore, draw lines perpendicular to the diagonal, 
and mark off on these the heights of the perpendiculars in 
the semicircle from which the points on which they stand 
were deduced. These extremities being connected, the 
curve so traced is the groin curve, and will give the shape 
for the centering of the groin, as the semicircle and semi- 
ellipse will for those used in the elevations of the arches. 

It now only remains to develop the surfaces of these 



HIPPED ROOF. 



39 



arches; that is, to find the shape of tin, zinc or lead which 
would cover the roof of a building, when formed as here 
described. 

The student is advised to work this study on a large 
scale on cardboard, and then to cut out the separate parts, 
which he can afterwards join at their edges, thus con- 
structing an accurate model of the roof required. 

As regards Fig. 49 draw any straight line, and, com- 




F'g 49 

mencing at A, set off on it the distances into which the curve 
AC (Fig. 48) is divided — (measuring on the curve, not on 
the springing line) — namely, the distances A, ab c, etc. 
At the points on the straight line thus marked, draw 




'g- 50- 



perpendiculars ; make the middle one equal to 6// those 
on ^^' equal to 5 e ; those on ^^ equal to ^d ; those ow c c 



40 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

equal to 3 r/ those on b b equal to 2 b, and those on a a 
equal to \ a. 

Join the extremities of these perpendicularSj and the 
curves meeting in a point, and joined by the original 
straight line, will form the development of the covering 
of the cylindroidal arch. 

Fig. 50 is the developemeut of the semicylindrical arch. 
As this is worked in precisely the same manner as the last, 
but taking the measurements from the semicircle, no further 
instructions are deemed necessary. 

SQUARE. 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Square Article, — 



V 


V 


A 


/ 


« G 


\\ 



line GE (Fig. 51 i; draw the 



F;g. 5 

Erect the perpendicular 
lineAB at right angle to GE; make EF equal to the slant 
height, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; make AB 
equal in length to one side of the base ; make CD equnl m 



SQUAEE. 



41 



length to one side of the top or smallest end ; draw the 
lines AG and BG, cutting the points AC and B'D; with G 
as a centre and the radii GC and GA, describe the arcs KM 
and JI ; set off on the arc JI, JA, BH, and HI equal in 
length to AB, and draw the lines JG, HG, and IG, also, 
the lines JA, BH, HI, and KG, DL, LM. 

Edges to be allowed. 

To describe a Fatiernfor a Square Tapering Article, to 
be in Two Sections. — Erect the perpendicular line EF (Fig. 
52) equal to the slant height of the article; draw the line 

F G b 




- L 



F'?' 52- 



AB at right angle to EF ; draw the line CD parallel to 
AB; make AB equal in length to one side of the base; 
make CD equal in length to one side of the top or smaller 
end ; draw the lines AC and BD ; C and D as centres, with 
a radius equal to one-half the difference of the two ends, 
as from B to G, describe the arcs I and H ; draw the right 
angle lines lAJ and HBK : set off JA and KB equal to 
FB, and draw the lines JL and KM at right angles to JA 
and KB ; also, the lines LC and MD at right angles to LJ 
and MK. 

Edges to be allowed. 

SQUARE BASE WITH A CIRCULAR TOP. 
To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the Base ti? 



42 TIX, SHEET-IRON AXD COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

be Square, and the Top a Circle, to he in Two Sections. — 
Erect the perpendicular line NF (Fig. 53); draw the line 
AB at right angle to NF ; make EF equal to the slant 
height, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; make a AB 




equal in length to one side of the base; make CD equal in 
length to one-fourth the circumference of the top, and draw 
the lines AC and BD ; C and D as centres, with a radius 
equal to one-half the difference of the two ends describe the 
arcs I and H ; draw the right-angle lines lAJ and HBK ; 
set off J A and KB equal to FB, and draw the lines JN and 
KN at right angles to JA and KB; N as a centre, with the 
radius NE, describe the arc LEM. 
Edges to be allowed. 

RECTANGLE BASE WITH A SQUARE TOP. 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the Base to 
be a Rectangle and the Top Square, to be in Two Sections. — 
Erect the perpendicular line KC (Fig. 54); draw the line 
AB at right angle to KC ; make KC equal to the slant 
height, and draw the line DE parallel to AB ; make AB 
equal in length to the longest side of the base ; make DE 



RECTANGLE BASE WITH A SQUARE TOP. 



43 



equal in length to one side of the top ; draw the lines AD 
and BE ; make CG equal to one-half the shortest side of 
the base ; D and E as centres, with a radius equal to one-half 




the difference of the top and tlie shortest side of the base, 
as from G to F, describe the arcs J and I ; draw the right- 
angled lines JAL and IBM ; set off AL and BM equal in 



44 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WOKKER. 

length to CG, and draw the lines MX and LO at riglu 
angle to BM and LA; also, the lines NE and OD at right 
angle to NM and OL. 
Edges to be allowed. 

RECTANGLE BASE WITH A CIRCULAR TOP. 

To describe a Patfeni for a Tapering Article, the Base to 
be a Rectangle, and the Top a Circle, to be in Two Sections. 
— Erect the perpendicular line DC (Fig. 55); draw the line 
AB at right angle to DC ; make CE equal to the slant 
height, and draw the line FG parallel to AB ; make AB 
equal in length to the longest side of the base ; make FG 
equal in length to one-fourth the circumference of the top; 
draw the lines AF and BG ; make CK equal to one-half 
the shortest side of the base ; erect the line LG parallel to 
EC; F and G as centres, with the radius KL, describe the 
arcs I and H ; draw the right-angled lines HBN and I AM ; 
set off BN and AM equal in length to CK, and draw the 
lines MD and ND at right angles to MA and NB ; D as a 
centre, with the radius DE, describe the arc OEP. 

Edges to be allowed. 

RECTANGLE. 

To describe a Pattern for a Tapering Article, the Top and 
Base to be a Rectangle, to be in Two Sections. — Erect the 
perpendicular line FE (Fig. 56); draw the line AB at right 
angle to FE ; make FE equal to the slant height of the 
article, and draw the line CD parallel to AB : make AB 
equal in length to the longest side of the base ; make CD 
equal in length to the longest side of the top; draw the 
lines AC and BD ; make GH equal in length to the shortest 
side of the base ; make JI equal in length to the shortest 
side of the top ; draw the line HI ; also, erect the line KI 
parallel to FE ; C and D as centres, witli the radius HK. 
describe the arcs M and L ; draw the right-angled lines LBO 



RECTANGLE. 



45 




and MAN; set off BO and AN equal in length to EH, 
and draw the lines OR and NP at right angles to NB and 
NA ; also, the lines RD and PC at right angles to RO and 
PN. 

Edges to be allowed. 



46 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPEE-PLATL n'ORKER. 




Fig. 56. 
OCTAGON. 



To describe a Pattern for Tapering Octagon Top or Cover. 
— Erect the perpendicular line GE (Fig. 57); draw the 
line AB at right angle to GE ; make FE equal to the slant 
heigi-t of the article, and draw the line CD parallel to AB ; 
make AB equal in length to one of the longest sides of 
the base ; make CD equal in length to one of the longest 
sides of tlie top, and draw the lines AG and BG, cutting 



OCTAGON. 



47 



the points AC and BD ; G as a centre, with the radii GC 
and GA, describe the arcs SO and PN ; set off QR, HJ 
and LN equal to AB ; set off PQ, RA, BH and JL equal 
in length to one of the shortest sides of the base ; draw the 
lines PS, QT, RU, etc., cutting the centre at G; draw the 
lines PQ, QR, ST, TU, etc. 
Edges to be allowed. 




F'g- 57- 

GUTTER MITER JOINTS. 

To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint at Right Angles 
for a Semicircle Gutter. — Let the semicircle ACB (Fig. 58) 
be the breadth and depth of the gutter ; draw the line AB ; 
draw the lines AF and BE at right angle to AB ; draw 
the line DE parallel to AB ; make DF equal to AB, 
and draw the line FE ; divide the semicircle into any 
number of equnl parts ; from the points draw lines parallel 



48 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

to AF, as I, 2, 3, etc., then set off the line AB (Fig. 59) 
equal in length to the semicircle ACB ; erect the lines BD 
and AC at right angle to AB ; set off on the line AB (Fig. 
59) the same number of equal distances as in the semi- 




D 



Fig. 58. 



A 10 8 87 65432 I b 

F'g 59- 



circle j from tlie points draw lines parallel to BD, as i, 2, 
3, etc., make BD equal in length to AF (Fig. 58), and AC 
equal in length to BE ; also, each of the parallel lines 
bearing the same figure, as i, 2, 3, etc.; then a line traced 
through the points will form the pattern required. 

MFFER JOINTS. 

To describe a Pattern for a Miter Joint at any Angle for a 
Semicircle Gutter. — I.et ABC (Fig. 60) be the breadth and 
depth of the gutter ; draw the line AC ; draw the lines 
EG and DH, the angle required ; draw the line ED, cutting 
the points E and D ; divide the semicircle into any num- 
ber of equal parts; from the points draw lines parallel to 
AE, as I, 2, 3, etc. Then set off tlie line AB (Fig. 61) 
equal in length to the semicircle ABC ; erect the lines AC 
and BDat right angle to AB ; set off on the line AB. the same 
number of equal distances as inthe semicircle ABC ( Fig. 60); 
from tlie points draw lines parallel to BD, as i, 2, 3, etc. 



MITER JOINTS. 



49 




Fig. 60. 



Fig. 61. 



Make BD equal to EA, and AC equal to DC ; also, each 
of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as i, 2, 3, etc. ; 
then a line traced through the points will form the 
pattern. 

To describe a F at tern for a Miter Joint for an O G Gutter 
at Right Angles. — Let ABCD (Fig. 62) be the given gutter ; 
divide the curved line BC into any number of equal parts ; 
from the points draw lines parallel to AD, as i, 2, 3, etc. ; 
then set off the right-angled line ABE (Fig. 6t,) ; make BF 
equal to AB (Fig. 62), and draw the line CF parallel to AB ; 
make AB and CF equal in length to AD (Fig. 62), and 
draw the line AC ; make FD equal in length to the curved 
line BC (Fig. 62) ; set off on the line FD the same number 
of equal distances, as in the curved line BC (Fig. 62) ; 
from the points draw lines parallel to CF, as i, 2, 3, etc. ; 
make CF equal to BE (Fig. 62) ; also, each of the parallel 
lines bearing the same figures, as i, 2, 3, etc. ; make 
DE equal to CD; then a line traced through the points 
will form the pattern. 



.60 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 
A B 




9^C 



Fig. 62. 



Fig. 63. 



CORNICE. 



To describe a Pattern for a MiteJ- Joint for an O G Cornice 
ut Right Angles ; also an Ofset.—DQScnbQ the right-angled 
/ine AFE (Fig. 64) ; let ABCDE be the given cornice ; 
divide the curved line BCH into any number of equal 
parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AF, as i, 2, 3, 
etc. Then set off the right angle ABCF (Fig. 65) ; make 
CD equal to AB (Fig. 64) ; make DG equal in length to 
the curved line BCH (Fig. 64) ; make GE equal to HD 
(Fig. 64) ; make EF equal to DE ; set off on the line DG 



CORNICE. 



5! 




o c 



Fig. 64. 





Q 01 


w 


► "* 


»r 


«o 


N 


00 


OS 





lU 


liL 























/ 


^ 


/ 

X 


ih 


















/ 








VD 


















/« 








hfl 














. 


^CQ 










Li- 




/i 


^ 


"^ 


-^ 


« 


r>. 












00 
























/o 


!8 




















/2- 


li) 


















/<7> 


SJ_ 






























1 


^ 


U^ 










1 J^-- 


*''^K 










J-trt* 










P^^ 








/>» 


< 




It' 


[M 





















o2 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



the same number of equal distances as in the curved line 
BCH (Fig. 64); from the points draw lines parallel to 
BC, as I, 2, 3, K, H, etc. Make EC and ID equal to AF 
(Fig. 64) ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same 
figures, as 2, 3, 4, etc. ; make KG and HE equal to DE 
(Fig. 64); then a line traced through the points B, i, 2, 
3, 4, etc., and KHF will form the pattern for a Miter Joint. 

When there is to be an offset or projection at right angles, 
let AB (Fig. 66) be the depth of the offset or projection ; 
make each of the parallel lines the same in length as AB, 
LI, 2 2, 3 3, etc. ; then a line traced through the points 
will form the pattern. 

OCTAGON. 

To describe a Pattern for an Octagon O G Lamp Top or 




f^'g 67- 



OCTAGON. 



53 



Cover. — Describe a circle that will cut the required Octa- 
gon (Fig. 67) ; draw a line that will cut the centre of two 
sections, as AI ; erect the perpendicular line HF; let 
ABCDEFJ be the given top or cover ; divide the curved 
lines BC and EF into any number of equal parts ; from 
the points draw lines parallel to FH, as i, 2, 3, etc., H, i, 
2, 3, etc. 

Set off the line AF (Fig. dZ) ; draw the line GE at righl 
angle to AF; make AB equal to AB in Fig. 67 ; make BC 




Fig. 68. 

equal in length tothe curved lineBC (Fig. 67); divide BC 
into the same number of equal distances, as in the curved 
line BC (Fig. 67) ; from the points draw lines parallel to 
GE; make CD equal to CD (Fig. 67), and DH equal to 
DE (Fig. 67) ; make HF equal to the curved line EF 
(Fig. 67) ; divide HF into the same number of equal dis- 
tances, as in the curved line EF ; from the points draw 
lines parallel to GE ; make AGAE and BIBJ equal to GA ; 
also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, H, I, 2, 3, 4, 5' 6 ; then 
a line traced through the points will form the pattern. 

A Top may be described in any number of sections by 
this rule. 

To describe a Pattern for a Stand {Aqua?rum Stand, for 
instance^, the Edge of which is a Moulding. — Let ABCDD' 



54 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER, 

C'B'A' (Fig. 69), be the plan of the stand, and EFGH 
the front elevation. Through D' draw D'/' perpendicular 
to AD (the line D'/' will be a continuation of the line 
C D'); and on it draw/' ^ ^", the curve of the moulding, 



\ 


.A 


A 


7 


A' 

2 


d' 0' 








\a.' a 


\. 


. 




,'J— 


^=4;^*^ — % 


\. 


/ — 


~~3^-^ 




\ 


/ 


'\ 


e 


\ 



/' 



Fig. 69. 



which divide into any number of parts, equal or unequal. 
The division here is into six equal parts, in the points a , 
h\ c\ d' and e, but it may sometimes be advantageous that 
the division shall be into unequal parts. Through the 
points of division draw lines i to i, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, 4 to 4, 
and 5 to 5, parallel to AD, the extremities of these lines 



OCTAGON. 



55 



terminating in A' A and D' D, the ''miter" lines of the 
plan. These ''miter" lines A' A and E' D bisect respec- 
tively the angles BAD, CAD ; in fact, the "miter" lines 
of a moulding which is joined at any angle always bisect 
that angle. From the points i, 2, 3, 4, and 5 on the line 
D'D draw lines parallel to DC and terminating in C C. 
To draw the pattern for the A^D'AD portion of the mould- 









^_ ' 








"' 




A' 


0' 




/ 


ft 


\. 




6 


V 


/ 


c 


\ 


/ 


d 


I 


/ 


e 


\. ^^ 


y 






A 




f 


D 




M 


' 


H 



Fi 



ig. 70. 



ing, draw (Fig. 70) any line KL, and from any point D' 
in it, set off distances D'a, ab, be, etc., equal respectively 
to the distances d' a' , a! b' , bV , etc, round the curve 
d" (f f (Fig. 69), and through the points D', a, b, c, etc., 
draw lines perpendicular to KL. Make a 1 equal to fz r 
(Fig. 69), and b 2, c t,, d 4, e ^, and/' D respectively 
equal to the distances /5 2, r 3, ^4, ^ 5 and/" D (Fig. 69); 



56 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

and through the points D' i, 2, 3, 4, 5 and D draw an un- 
broken curved line. Now from D' set off D'A' equal to 
D'A' (Fig. 69), and through A' draw A'M parallel to 
KL. From the points in A'M, where the lines through a, 
b, c, etc., cut A'M, set off distances to the left of the line 
corresponding to the distances a 1, b 2, c t^, etc., to the 
right of the line KL, and through the points thus found 
draw an unbroken curved line. Then A'D'AD will be 
the pattern for the A'D'AD (Fig. 69) portion of the 
stand. 

To draw the pattern for the D'C'DC (Fig. 69) portion 
of the stand : It will be at once seen from the plan that 
this differs only from the A'D'AD portion in that the 
distance D'C is less than the distance A'D' ; and thus, 
that if in Fig. 69 the lines A'M and LK are brought 
closer together, so that A'D' is equal to D'C (Fig. 69), 
that the pattern so obtained will be the pattern for the 
D'C'DC piece of moulding. 

It will be noticed that the elevation FGEH is not used 
in the working of the problem, although here drawn ; that, 
indeed, it is unnecessary to draw an elevation. 

PIPES. 

To describe a T Pipe at Right Angles.—L^i ABCD (Fig. 
71), be the length and diameter of the T; describe the 
semicircle CED ; divide the semicircle into any number 
of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AC, 
as I, 2, 3, etc. ; then set off the line ABC (Fig. 72), equal 
in length to the circumference of the pipe AB ; erect the 
lines AD, BE and CF ; set off on each side of BE the 
same number of equal distances, as in the semicircle CED ; 
from the points draw lines parallel to BE, as i i, 2 2, 3 3, 
etc.; make AD, BE and CF equal to AC (Fig. 71) ; also, 
each of the parallel lines, bearing the same numbers as i i, 



PIPES. 



57 



2 2, 3 3, etc.; then a line traced through the points will 
form the pattern required. 

Edges to be allowed for folding or riveting. 



o 


""-^ 


o 




\ 






\ 






\ 






^ 






/ 






/ 




u 


^y 


-< 




8 9 10 C 



To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any Angle. — Draw 
the line AE (Fig. 73) ; erect the line AB, the angle 
required ; also, the line ED parallel to AB ; make BD 
equal to the diameter of the Pipe ; describe the semicircle 
BCD ; draw the line FG parallel to BD ; divide the semi- 
circle into any number of equal parts ; from the points 
draw lines parallel to AB, as i, 2, 3, etc. 



5S TIN, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 




P'^- 73- 

Set off the line iBC (Fig. 74) equal in length to the 
circumference of the Pipe ; erect the lines AE, BD and 




CF at right angles to AC ; set off on each side of BD the_ 
same number of equal distances as in the semicircle BCD 



PIPES. 



59 



(Fig. 73), and from the ])oints draw lines parallel to BD, 
as I I, 2 2, 3 3, etc. Make BD equal to AB (Fig. 73), and 
EA and CF equal to ED (Fig. 73) ; also, each of the 
})arallel lines, bearing the same figures as i i, 2 2, 3 3, etc. 
Make GI and HJ equal to GD (Fig. 73) ; also, each of the 
lines bearing the same figures as i i, i i, 2 2, 2 2, etc. ; 
then a line traced through the points will form the required 
pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 




\ 



AI2 3 4- 5 6 7 8 9I0B 

P'g- 75- 



To describe a Pattern Jor a TPipe, the Collar to be Smaller 
than the Main Pipe. — Let the circle GH (Fig. 75) equal 
the large pipe, AB, CD, the branch or collar ; describe th^ 



60 TIX, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

semicircle AEB ; divide the semicircle into any number of 
equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to AC, as 
I, 2, 3, etc. 
Set off the line ABC (Fig. 76} equal in length to the 



t 



AtOS876S432igl2345e789lOc 

Fig. 76. 

circumference of the collar AB ; erect the perpendicular 
lines AD, BE and CF ; set off on each side of BE the same 




'fir- 77- 



PIPES. 



61 



number of equal distances as in the semicircle ; from the 
points draw lines parallel to BE, as i, i, 2, 2, etc. ; make 
AD, BE and CF equal to AC and BD (Fig. 75); also, 
each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures, as i, i, 
2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; then a line traced through the points will 
form the pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 

To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any Angle ^ the Collar 
to be Smaller than the Main Pipe. — Let CE (Fig. 77) be the 
diameter of the collar, and AB the angle required ; describe 




Fig- 78- 



«2 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

the semicircle CDE ; make CF and EH of equal length ; 
with a radius equal to one-half the diameter of the large 
pipe, describe the arc FH ; divide the semicircle into any 
number of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel 
to AC, as I, 2, etc. There must be an odd number of 
lines, as in the diagram, so that one of the lines runs 
tlirough the centre of the semicircle. 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. 78) equal in length to the 
circumference of the collar, CE ; erect the lines AD, BE 




f^ig- 79 



and CF ; set off on each side of BE the same number of 
equal distances as in the semicircle, and from the points 
draw lines parallel to BE, as i i, 2 2, etc.; make BE equal 



PIPES. 



63 



to AC in Fig. 77 ; make AD and CF equal to BE (Fig. 77) ; 
also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures ; 
make GI and HJ equal to CF (Fig. 77); also, each of the 
parallel lines bearing the same figures, as i i, i i, 2 2, 2 2, etc. 

A line traced through the last points will form the pat 
tern. 

Edges to be allowed. 




To describe a Pattern for a T Pipe at any Angle, the Col- 
lar to be set on one side of the Main Pipe. — Let the circle 
FE (Fig. 79) equal a large pipe or boiler; make AB equal 
to the diameter of the collar or branch pipe, BE the angle 



64 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

required; describe the semicircle ACB ; divide the semicir- 
cle into any number of equal parts ; from the points draw 
lines parallel to EB, as i, 2, 3, etc. 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. 80) equal in length to the 
circumference of the collar AB (Fig. 79); erect the per- 
pendicular lines AD, BE and CF (Fig. 79) ; set off on each 
side of BE the same number of equal distances as in the 
semicircle ACB (Fig. 79); from the points draw lines 
parallel to BE ; make BE equal to EB (Fig. 79) ; make AD 
and CF equal to DA (Fig. 79) ; also, each of the parallel 
lines bearing the same figures, as i i, 2 2, 3 3, etc. Then a 
line traced through the points will form the pattern. 
Edges to be allowed. 
Nl ^ 




Fig. 8.. 
To describe the Pattern for a T-piece formed by two 
equal or unequal circular Pipes {^cylinders of equal or im- 



PIPES. 65 

equal diameter), which 7neet at RigJit Angles. — First draw 
(Fig. 8i_) a side elevation and part-plan of the 'two 
circular pieces of pipe, which we will sui)pose un- 
equal, as follows: Draw two indefinite lines Z^/ and KJ, 
intersecting each other at right angles in O. Make OZ 
equal to the diameter of the larger pipe, and through Z 
draw an indefinite line ML parallel to JK. Make OA' and 
OH' each equal to half the diameter of the smaller pipe, 
and through A' and H' draw indefinite lines A'A and H'H, 
each perpendicular to KJ. In A'A take any point A, 
on H'H set off H'H equal to A'A, and join AH cutting Od 
in D; then A'A HH' will represent, in elevation, a piece 
of the smaller pipe. Next, in Alv take any point K, and 
through K draw KM perpendicular to KJ, and meeting 
ML in M; also, in H'J take any point J, and through J 
draw JL perpendicular to KJ and meeting ML in L ; then 
MKJL will represent, in elevation, a piece of the larger 
pipe, and MKA'AHH'JL a side elevation (except the curve 
of junction) of the T-piece. With D as centre and radius 
DA, that is, half the diameter of the smaller pipe, describe 
a semicircle KaW ; divide the quadrant kd of it into any 
number of equal parts, here three, in the points b and r/ 
and through b and c draw indefinite lines b^' and cQ! par- 
allel to A'A. Now on ZO describe a semicircle Z3O (this 
will be a part-plan of the large pipe), and with O as centre 
and radius DA describe a quadrant H'E (this may be re- 
garded as a part-plan of the smaller pipe) which divide, 
exactly as quadrant A^/ was divided in the points Fand G; 
through F, G, and H' draw lines Fi, G2, and H'3 parallel 
to Zd and cutting the semicircle Z3O in points i, 2 and 
3. Through point i draw a line iB' parallel to KJ and 
meeting b^' in B'; through 2 draw 2C' parallel to KJ and 
meeting cQ in C; and througli 3 draw 3D' parallel to KJ 
and meeting d\y' in D'. From D' to A' through the points 
C' and B' draw an unbroken curved line^ then A'C'D' is 
5 



66 TIN. SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



the elevation of one-half of the curve of junction of the 
two pipes. In practice it is only necessary to draw the 
A'ODA (Fig. 8i) portion of the elevation of the smaller 
pipe. The other half elevation H'ODH of it is drawn 
here simply to make the full side elevation of the T-piece 
clearer. 

To get at the whole T-piece it is evident that two pat- 
terns are required, one for the smaller piece of pipe, up to 




Fig, 82. 



its junction with the larger, and one for the larger with the 
hole in it that the smaller pipe fits to. 

To draw the pattern for the larger pipe with the longi- 
tudinal seam to correspond witli the line ML, proceed as 
follows : 

First set out, aj^art from the pipe itself, the shape for 
the hole in it. Draw (Fig. 82) two indefinite lines ZO' 



PIPES. 67 

and A' A', intersecting at right angles in O ; from O, on 
ZO, right and left of A'A', set off distances Oi', i'2' and 
2'D equal respectively to Oi, i 2, and 2 3 (Fig. 81), tiiat is, 
to the actual distances on the round curve of the pipe at 
ZO that the lines iB', 2C' and 3D' are apart. Through 
points i' and 2', right and left of A' A', draw B'B' and CC 
perpendicular to ZO'. Make I'B' above and below ZO, 
and right and left of A' A', equal to I'B' (Fig. 81) ; and 
make 2'C', above and below ZO', and right and left of 
A' A', equal to 2'C' (Fig. 81) ; and through all the points as 
above found, namely, D'C'B', A', B'C'D', C, B', etc., draw 
an unbroken curved line ; then D'A'D'A'D' will be the 
shape of the hole required. 

To complete the pattern for the MKJL (Fig. 81) piece 
of the larger pipe, make OZ and OO' each equal to half its 
circumference; and through Z and O' draw indefinite lines 
ML perpendicular to ZO'. Make ZM of left-hand line 
ML, and O'M of right-hand line ML, each equal to ZM 
(Fig. 81) ; similarly make ZL and O'L each equal to ZL 
(Fig. 81). Then MLLM will complete the pattern re- 
quired. 

It has been shown how to mark out by itself the hole 
in the larger pipe, because in cases where the pipe is already 
made up, it is convenient to be able to mark out the shape 
of the hole apart from the pipe, on, say, a thin piece of 
sheet-metal, which shape can then be cut out and used as a 
template ; being applied to the pipe and bent to it, and 
the shape of the hole marked on it from the template. Even 
when the pipe is not made up, it is useful when the pipe is 
large to be able to mark out the hole quite apart from the 
pipe itself. 

To draw the pattern for the smaller piece of pipe, the 
longitudinal seam to correspond with the line A'A (Fig. 
81), proceed as follows : 

Draw (Fig. 83) an indefinite line AA. In it take any 



6S TIN, SHEET-IKON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

point D, and from D, right and left, set off distances DC, 
CB, BA, equal respectively to ^/r, c/^, and ^a (Fig. 8i) that 
is, equal to one another ; and from the point D and eacli of 
the points C, B, and A, draw hnes perpendicular to AA. 
Make DD' equal to DD' (Fig. 8ij, and the lines CC, BB', 
AA', right and left of DD', equal respectively to CC, BB' 
and AA' (Fig. 8i). From either point A to A' on the 
other side of DD', draw through B'C'D'C, ami B', an un- 
broken curved line ; then AA'A'A will be half the required 
pattern. The other half can be similarly drawn. 




To describe the Pattern for the T formed by a funnel-shape 
piece of Pipe and a circular piece, the former being square 
to the latter ; the Diameter of the circular Pipe and the Diam- 
eters of the ends of the funnel-shape Pipe and its Length 
being given. — By ''being square" is meant that the axes 
of the pieces of pipe intersect and are at right angles. The 
given diameter of the smaller end of the funnel-shape pipe 
is the diameter in the direction of the length of the circular 
pipe, and that coincides witli its surface. 

First draw a side elevation and a part-plan -of the T 



PIPES. 



69 



thus: Draw (Fig. 84) any two indefinite lines Z./and KJ, 
intersecting at right angles at O. Make OZ equal to tlie 
diameter of the circular pipe, and through Z draw ML 




Fig. 84. 

parallel to KJ ; make OD equal to the length of the fun- 
nel-shape pipe, and through D draw a line AH perpendic- 
ular to Od. Now make Dx\ and DH each equal to hall 



70 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

the given diameter of its smaller end, which small end we 
will suppose is not let into, but fits against the circular 
pipe. Join AA' and HH', then A'A and HH' will be, in 
elevation, the main portion of tlie funnel-shape pipe. Next 
in A'K take any point K, and through K draw KM per- 
pendicular to KJ and meeting ML in M; also, in H'J 
take any point J, and through J draw JL perpendicular to 
KJ and meeting ML in M ; then MKJL will represent, in 
elevation, a piece of the circular pipe ; and MKA'AHH'JL 
a side elevation (except the curve of the junction) of 
the T. Produce A A' and HH' to intersect ZO in V; with 
D as centre and radius DA, describe a semicircle A^H, 
and divide the quadrant A<^ of it into any number of equal 
jjarts, here three, in the points b and c ; through b and c 
draw <^B and <rC, each perpendicular to AH and cutting it 
in B and C, and join BV and CV; now on ZO describe a 
semicircle Z3O (this will be a part-plan of the circular pipe), 
cutting VH' in point 3. With O as centre and radius OH', 
describe a quadrant H'E (this may be regarded as a part- 
plan of the funnel-shape pipe), which divide into the same 
number of equal parts that the quadrant Kd is divided into, 
in the points/ and g. Through f and g draw fY and ^H, 
each perpendicular to h!YM and cutting it in F and G; join 
FV, GV, cutting the semicircle Z3O in points i and 2 re- 
spectively. Through point i draw a line iB" parallel to 
KJ, meeting AV in B" and cutting ZO and BV in i' and 
B' respectively; through 2 draw 2C" parallel to KJ, meet- 
ing AV in C, and cutting ZO and CV in 2' and C re- 
spectively ; and through 3 draw 3D" parallel to KJ, cutting 
ZO in D' and meeting AV in D". From D' through C 
and B' to A' draw an unbroken curved line ; then A'C'D' 
is the elevation of one-half the curve of junction of the 
two pipes. In practice it is only necessary to draw the 
OA'AD (Fig. 84) portion of the elevation of the smaller 
pipe. The other half elevation OH'HD of it is drawn here 



PIPES. 



71 




Fig. 85. 



72 TIN, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

simply to make the full side elevation of the T clearer. It 
is evident that the T requires two patterns, one for the cir- 
cular pipe with the hole in it that the funnel-shape pipe fits 
to, and one for the funnel-shape itself. 

To draw the pattern for the circular pipe, the longitudi- 
nal seam to correspond with the line ML, proceed in ex- 
actly similar manner as explained for the pattern of the 
corresponding pipe in the preceding problem (p. 66). 

To draw the pattern for the funnel-shape pipe, the lon- 
gitudinal seam to correspond with the line AA' (Fig. 84), 
proceed as follows : With V (Fig. 85) as centre, and VA 
(Fig. 85) as radius, describe an arc- AA, and from any 
point in it set off along the arc distances AB, BC, CD, DC, 
BC and BA, each equal to Ab iowQ of the equal parts 
into which quadrant dh (Fig. 84) is divided). Join AV, 
BV, CV, DV, CV, BVand AV ; and make the extreme 
liner>AA' right and left of DV equal to AC" (Fig. 85) and 




Fig. 86. 

DD" equal to AD" (Fig. 84). Through points A', B", C", 
D", C", B", A" draw an unbroken curved line; then AA' 



PIPES 



73 



A'x\ will be one-half the pattern required. By continuing 
to the right, say, the arc AA, and setting off on it the 
same above equal distances AB, BC, etc., and proceeding 
in exactly similar manner, the other half-pattern can be 
drawn to complete the pattern required. 

To describe a Pattern for ci Pipe to fit a Flat Surface at 
anv Angle, as the side of the Roof of a Building.— hti AB 
( Fig. 86) equal the angle of the roof of a building ; let BE, 
FB equal the pipe ; draw the line CE ; describe the semi- 




. Fig. 87. 

circle CDE ; divide the semicircle into any number of equal 
parts ; from the points draw lines parallel to EB, as 2, 3, 
4, etc. 



74 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Then set off the line ABC (Fig. 87) equal in length to 
the circumference of the cylinder CE (Fig. 86) ; erect tl.e 
perpendicular lines AD, BE aiui CF ; set off on each side 
of BE the same number of equal distances, as in the semi- 
circle CDE (Fig. S6) ; from the points draw lines parallel 
to BE ; make BE equal to BE (Fig. 86) ; make AD and 
CF equal to FC (Fig. 86) : also, each of the parallel lines 
bearing the same number as 2 2, 3 3, 44, etc.; then a line 
traced through the points will form the pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 




Fig. 



To describe a Pattern for a Pipe to fit two Flat Surfaces, 
as the Roof of a Building.— I. Qt ABC (Fig. 88) equal the 
pitch of a roof; let DF, IH, be the pipe; draw the line 
BG parallel to HF; draw tlie line DF at right angle to 
HF; describe the semicircle DEF ; divide one-half of the 
semicircle into any rumber of equal parts; from the points 
draw lines parallel to FH, as 2, 3, 4, etc. 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. 89) equal in length to the 
circumference of the pipe DF ; divide the line ABC into 



PIPES. 



75 



four equal parts, and erect tlie lines AD, 01, BF, 01, CE ; 
set off on each side of 01, OI, the same number of equal 
distances as in one-half of the semicircle ; from the points 
draw lines parallel to BF ; make AD, BF and CE equal to 




Fig. 89. 

HF (Fig. 88) ] make OI, 01 equal to BG (Fig. m ; also, 
each of the parallel lines bearing the same figures as 2 2, 
2 2, 3 3, 3 3, etc. ; then a line traced through the points 
will form the pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 

To describe the Form of a ^' Tapering Piece ^' of Piping, to 
Join Two Pieces of Piping, which are both vertical, but not in 
the same axis, and which are of Different Diameters. — Let 



7.5 TIX, SHEET-IROX AXD COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 
ABCD (Fig. 90) be a portion of the one pipe and EFGH 




the other. Join BE and CF, and produce the lines 



ELBOWS. 



77 



until they meet in O ; then if OC be produced until it is 
equal to OB, viz., to I, and IB be joined, it will be evident 
that OIB is the elevation of a cone placed obliquely on the 
lower cylinder, and which is cut off at BC and EF. 

Now draw any diameter to the cylinder, as JK, and on 
it describe a semicircle, representing half of the section 
of the cylinder. Divide this semicircle into any number 
of equal parts, viz., IMNPQ ; through these points draw 
perpendiculars cutting the line BC in /, ;//, //, /, q, and 
from /, ;;/, //, /, q, draw lines to O. 

Now from O, with radius O//, describe an arc N'N", 
and on this arc set off the lengths into which the semicircle 
is divided. From O draw radii through all these points, 
producing them beyond the arc N'N"; from O as a centre, 
and with OB, O/, Ot?i, Op, Oq, and OC as radii, describe 
arcs cutting the radii, in Fig. 91, in C, q\ p', n\ nt\ / and 



A 



\ 



A98 7 6 5 4 3 21 B 

Fig. 92. 

B. etc., and the curve being drawn through these points 
will give the bottom of the tapering piece. 



78 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

The upper piece is to be drawn in the same manner, and 
will be understood from the diagram. 

ELBOWS. 
To describe an Elbow at Right Angles. — Let x\BCD (Fig. 
92) be the given elbow ; draw the line AB at right angles 
to BC \ draw the line FC ; describe the semicircle AGB ; 




F'g:- 93- 

divide the semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from 
the points draw lines parallel to BC, as i, 2, 3, etc. 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. 93) equal in length to the 
circumference of the elbow AB ; erect the perpendicular 
lines AD, BE and CF; set off on each side of BE the 



ELBOWS. 



79 



same number of equal distances, as in the semicircle AGB 
(Fig. 92); from the points draw lines parallel to BE; 
make BE equal to BC (Fig. 92) ; make AD and CF equal 
to AF (Fig. 92) ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing 
the same figures as i i, 2 2, 3 3, etc. ; then a line traced 
through the points will form the pattern. 

Edges to be allowed. 

Patterns for Elbows may be described at any angle, by 
any of the Rules for cutting Elbow patterns ; in laying out 
Elbow patterns let AB equal diameter of the Elbow, and 
BCD the angle. 




8 8iOB 



To describe an Elbow P ait em at any Angle. — Let ABCD 
(Fig. 94) be the given elbow; draw the line AB at right 
angle to BF ; draw the line EF ; describe the semicircle 
AGB ; divide the semicircle AGB into any number of 
equal parts; from the points draw lines parallel to BF, as 
I, 2, 3, etc. 



.a. 



80 TIX, SHEpT-IPvOX AND COPPER-PLATi: WORKEPw. 
% 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. 95) equal in length to the 
circumference of the elbow AB (Fig. 9.;.) ; eiect the per[)en- 
dicular lines AF, BE and CD ; set off on each side of BE 
the same number of equal distances, as in the semicircle 




t-'g- 95- 

AGB (Fig. 94) : from tlie points draw lines parallel to BE, 
as I, I, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; make BE equal to BF (Fig. 94); 
make AF and CD equal to AE ; also, each of the parallel 
lines bearing the same figures as i, i, 2. 2, 3. 3, etc. 

Then a line traced through the points will form the pat- 
tern. 

Edges to be allowed. 

To desc7'ibe a Pattern for an Elbow in T/irre Sections. — 
I>et ABED (Fig. 96) be the gi\-en elbow; draw the line 
FC ; make FK equal to one-half the diameter of the elbow; 



ELBOWS. 



81 



L 




A98 7 § ^43 EiB 

FI?. q6. 



with F as a centre, describe the arc GL ; divide the arc 
GL into four equal parts; draw the lines FH and FJ ; also^ 
the line JH ; draw the line AB at right angle to BC ; de- 
scribe the semicircle AMB ; divide the semicircle into any 
number of equal parts ; from the points draw lines parallel 
to BFi, as I, 2, 3, etc. 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. 97) equal in length to the 
circumference of the elbow AB ; erect the perpendicular 
lines AD, BH and CE ; set off on each side of BH the 
same number of equal distances as in the semicircle AMB 
(Fig. 96) ; from the points draw lines parallel to BH ; make 
BH equal to BH (Fig. 96) ; make AD and CE equal to AN 
(Fig. 96) ; also, each of the parallel lines bearing the same 
number as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc. ; then a line traced through 
the points will form one of the sections. Make DF and 
EG equal to HJ (Fig. 96) ; then reverse section No. i, and 
place D at G and E at F, and trace a line from G to F ; 
this will form sections Nos. 2 and 3. 

E<l£;-es to be allowed. 
.6 



6* TIN, SHEET-mON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



o 



97- 



To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Four Sections. — ' 
Let ABED (Fig. 98) be the given elbow ; draw the line 
FC ; make FM equal in length to one-half the diameter 
of the elbow; with F as a centre, describe the arc KL; 
divide the arc KL into three equal parts ; draw the lines 
FH and FI ; also the line IH ; divide the section HK into 
two equal parts, and draw the line FG ; draw the line AB 
at right angles to BC ; describe the semicircle ANB ; di- 
vide the semicircle into any number of equal parts ; from 
the points draw lines parallel to BC, as i, 2, 3, etc. 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. 99) equal in length to the 
circumference of elbow AB ; erect the lines AF. BD and 



ELBOWS. 



83 



_ 


- 


7' 




p/ff/ 


// ^ 


G 


t 




y^ ^-'T^TT 


1 






fT 








" 


F 


^/ 


T* 












J7 < 




; ^ 


y 3ZI 


!. 




Fig 99. 



84 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLAE WORKER. 



CE ; set off on each side of the line BD the same number 
of equal distances as in the semicircle ANB (Fig. 98) ; 
from the points draw lines parallel to BD as i, i, 2, 2, etc.; 
make BD equal to BG (Fig. 98) ; make AF and CE equal 
to A] (Fig. 98) ; also, each of the parallel lines, bearing 
the same number as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; then aline traced 
through the points will form the first section; make FG 
and EJ equal to HI (Fig. 98 j ; reverse section No. i ; 
place E at G and F at J ; trace a line from G to J : make 
GH and JI equal to PC (Fig. 98), or to DK (Fig. 99); 
take section No. i, place F at H and E at I, and trace a 
line from H to I ; this forms sections Nos. 3 and 4. 
Edges to be allowed. 



D 


M 












C 






x 






/ y 


'^<^ 




E 


1 / 


« 




LC^' 


" 


" 








r» 


F 


/ 


.^-^ 


N 










\ 















A87 6 5 4-3 2^\B 

Fig. 100. 

To describe a Pattern for an Elbow in Five Sections. — Let 
ABED (Fig. 100) be the given elbow; draw the line FC ; 
make FL equal in length to one-lialf the diameter of the 
elbow ; with F as a centre, describe the arc GM ; divide the 
arc GIM into four equal parts, and draw tlie lines FJ and 
FIT ; also the line IH ; divide the section GH into two equal 



ELBOWS. 



85 



parts, and draw the line FK ; draw the line AB at right angle 
to BC ; describe the semicircle ANB ; divide the semicircle 
into any number of equal parts; from the points draw 
lines parallel to BC, as i, 2, 3, etc. 



1 

1 
1 








5 












j 
















"1 


L 








4 

T 


















'— 












1 




i^ 


■ — — 








i 




n 












1 
J 


• 








1 










1 


G 
































. 






K 
















2 












M 


. 






































D 








F 








1 










,,. 


u 


! 
















'1 

1 
-J 



87 65432 8 B8Z34SS78C 

Rg .ot. 

Set off the line ABC (Fig. loi) equal in length to the 
circumference of the elbow AB; erect the perpendicular 
lines AL, BD and CK ; set off on eacli side of BD tlie 
same number of equal distances as in the semicircle ANB 
(Fig. 100); from the points draw lines parallel to BD, as i, i, 
2, 2, etc.; make BD equal to BK ; make AF and CE equal 
to AO ; also, eachvof the parallel lines bearing tlie sanie 
number as i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; then a line traced through 
the points will form Sec. i. Make FG and EH equal to 
HI; reverse Sec. i, place E at G and F at H, 
and trace a line from G to H ; make GJ and HI 



86 TIN, SHEET-IEOX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKEPv 

equal DM in Fig. loo; take Sec. i and place E at 
I and F at J, and trace a line from J to I ; make JL and 
IK equal to HI ; reverse Sec. i, and place E at L and F 




A///ffS8' 7 6 S f 32/B 

F'\g: 102. 



at K, and trace a line from L to K. This completes Sec- 
tions Nos. 4 ar^d 5. This completes the patterns. When 



ELBOWS. 



87 



elbows are to be of heavy iron and riveted, punch the 
holes for the rivets on the lines FE, GH, JI and LK, allow- 
ing for the lap each side on Sections Nos. 2, 3, and 4. 

To describe a Fa f tern for a Tapering Elbow. — Let AE 
and CD (Fig. 102) equal large end of elbow, DHB the 
angle ; make HF equal CG^ and EF equal AB ; make JK 




88 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



equal the small end of the elbow ; draw the lines BK and 
A], and continue the lines until they intersect at I ; de- 
scribe the semicircles AB and JK ; divide the semicircles 
into the same number of equal parts ; from the points draw 
lines, as i, 2, 3, etc. 

On any line, as AB (Fig. 103), with the radii IK and 
IB (Fig. 102), describe the arcs HI and CD ; set off CAD 
equal in length to the circumference of the large end AB ; 
draw the lines CB and DB ; set off on each side of AB the 
sam.e number of equal distances as in the semicircle AB 
(Fig. 102) ; from the points draw lines cutting the centre 
at B ; make AE equal to BL (Fig. 102) ; make CF and DG 
equal to AM (Fig. 102); also each of the lines bearing 



the same figure as i, i, 2, 2, 



etc. 



Then a line 



traced through the points will form the pattern. 
Edges to be allowed. 



c 


^ 


.:::^ 


^ 


.^ 


..:^ 


_^ 




A F 








^ 


\ 


\ 


1 


1 ^ 












/ 


1 





Fig^. 1 04. 



BOILER COVER. 



89 



BOILER COVER. 

To describe an Oval Boiler Cover. — Erect the line DC 
(Fig. 104) ; make FD equal to one-half the length of the 
boiler bottom before the edge is turned ; describe the circle 
HDI one-eighth of an inch larger in diameter than the 
breadth of the bottom ; let FG be three-eighths of an inch ; 
then apply the corner of the square on the line AB, allow- 
ing the blade to cut the circle at I and the tongue at the 
point G; draw the lines GB, BI, also the lines GA, AH ; 
allow one-eighth of an inch for an edge, as shown by the 
dotted lines. The cover will be the same size as the 
bottom or pit, 

FLANGE. 

To describe a Pattern for a Flange for a Pipe that goes 
onthe Roof of a Builditig, as Fig. ^'^. — Let ABC (Fig. 105) 





ig- 105 



106. 



be the pitch of the roof; make DE equal to the diameter 
of the pipe; describe the circle FG (Fig. 106); make 
FG the same in diameter as the pipe ; draw the line FG ; 
set off on the line FG any number of equal parts; from 
the points draw lines at right angle to FG, as i, 2, etc. 



90 



TIN SHEET-mON AND COPPER-PLATE AVORKER. 



Set off the line HI (Fig. 107) equal in length to DBE 
in Fig. 105 ; set off on the line HI the same number of 
equal parts as in the line FG (^Fig. 106) ; from the points 
draw lines at right angle to HI ; set off on each side of HI 
the same distances as on each side of the line FG in Fig, 





1 








a/ 


\2 


3/ 


\3 


4/ 


\* 


5/ 


\5 


6/ 


\ 


6 








6 








5 


\ 


u 


\ 


/3 




\ 


A 




\ 


/, 




\^^ 


y 







H 

Fig. 107. 

106, as I, I, 2, 2, etc. ; a line traced through the points 
will' form' the piece to be cut out ; when there is to be an 
ed^e turned up, it must be allowed inside of the line traced. 
The same rule is applied to describe a pattern for a flange 
for Fig. 86; make HI (Fig. 107) equal BF (Fig. 86), 
then proceed the same as described above. 

OCTAGON OR SQUARE TOP OR COVER. 

To describe an Octagon or Square Top or Cover.— De- 
scribe a circle, three-quarters of an inch larger in diameter 
than a circle that will cut each corner of the article the top 
or cover is for ; set off the squares from B to C (Fig. 108) ; 
take one-half of the largest square ; and with B and C as 
centres, describe arcs G and H ; then with A as centre, 
describe the arc cutting the square at I and the arc D; 



OCTAGON OR SQUARE TOP OR COVER. 




f;^. !o8. 

where the arcs GD and HD intersect, draw the lines AE 
and AF, also the lines BE and CF. 

STEAMER COVER. 

To describe a Steamer Cover. — Describe a circle one inch 
larger in diameter than the hoop after the edge is laid off; 
lay the hoop on the plate, allowing an edge each side, as 




Fig. 109. 
shown by the distance between the two circles and the dot 
on the line AC (Fig. 109), the circle DE representing the 
hoop ; take the distance from A to the dot on the line AC, 



92 TIN SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



and set off three times the distance on the outer circle, as 
from A to B ; draw tiie lines AC and BC, cutting the centre 
at C. 

Edges to be allowed. 

OVAL. 

To describe an Ellipse or Oval, having tJie Tivo Diam- 
eters given. — On the intersection of the two diameters as a 
centre, with a radius equal to one-half the difference of tlie 
two diameters, describe tlie arc AB (Fig. no), and from 
B as a centre, with half the chord ACB, describe the arc 

r 




Fig lio. 
CD; from E as a centre with the distance ED cut the 
diameters at FF and DD ; draw the lines FO, FO, FO, FO ; 
then from F and F as centres, describe the arcs 00 and 
00 ; also, from D and D as centres, describe the smaller arcs 
00 and 00, which will complete the ellipse as required. 




To draw an Ellipse witli the Rule and Compasses, ttic 



OVAL. 53 

transverse and coiijugate Diameters being give?i ; that is, the 
Length and Width. — Let AB (Fig. m) be the transverse 
or longest diameter; CD the conjugate or shortest diam. 
eter, and O the point of their intersection — that is, the 
centre ot the ellipse. Take the distance OC or OD ; 
and, taking A as one point, mark that distance AE 
upon the line AO; divide OE into three equal parts, and 
take from AF, a distance EF, equal to one of those parts ; 
make OG equal to OF ; with the radius FG, and F and G 
as centres, strike arcs which shall inteisect each other in 
the points I and H ; then draw the lines HFK, HGM, and 
IFL, IGN; with F as a centre, and the radius AF, describe 
the arc LAK ; and, from G as a centre, with the same 
radius, describe the arc MBN ; with the radius HC, and H 
as a centre, describe the arc KCM; and from the point I, 
with the radius ID, describe the arc LMD. The figure 
ACBD is an ellipse, formed of four arcs of circles. 

To draiv an Egg-shaped Oval, hainng the Length and 
Width given.—^l^kt KV) (Fig. 112) equal to the length of 
tlie oval, and from A set off AO equal to half its width. 
Through O draw an indefinite line QQ' perpendicular to 
AB, and with O as centre and OA as radius, describe the 
semicircle CAD. Join DB ; and from D draw DE per- 
pendicular to QQ' and equal to OD. Also, from E draw 
"EG parallel to QQ' and intersecting DB in G, and from G 
draw GF parallel to DE and intersecting QQ' in F. From 
B sef off BP equal to DF, and join PF. Bisect FP and 
through the point of bisection draw a line cutting QQ' in 
Q. Join QP and produce it indefinitely, and with Q as 
centre and QD as radius describe an arc meeting QP pro- 
duced in H. Make OQ' equal to OQ, and join QP and 
produce it indefinitely. Witli Q' as centre, and Q'C (equal 
to QD) as radius, describe an arc meeting Q'P produced 
in H'. And with P as centre and PB as radius describe an 



94 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND 'JOPPER-PLATE WORKER. 




Fig. I :2. 

arc to meet the arcs DH and CH' in H and H', and to 

complete the egg-shaped oval. 

ELLIPSE. 




Fig. 1*3. 
To find the Centre and the two Axes of an Ellipse. — Let 



ELLIPSE. 



95 



ABCD (Fig. 113) be an ellipse: it is required to find its 
centre; draw any two lines, as EF and GH, parallel and 
equal to each other ; bisect these lines as in the points 1 
and K, and bisect IK as in L ; from L as a centre, draw a 
circle cutting the ellipse in four points, i, 2, 3, 4; now L 
is the centre of the ellipse ; but join the points i, 3, and 2, 
4; and bisect these lines as in M and N; draw the line 
MN, and produce it to A and B, and it will be the trans- 
verse axis; draw CD through L, and perpendicular to AB, 
and it will be the conjugate or shorter axis. 



ft.-" --^ 




F;g. 1 14. 

To find the Radius and Versed Sine for a given Frustum 
of a Cone. — Multiply the slant height by one-half the diam- 
eter of the large end, and divide the product by one-half 
the difference of the two ends, and the quotient is the ra- 
dius. The versed sine is found by multiplying the altitude 
by one-half the diameter of the large end, and dividing 



96 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

the product by one-half tlie difference of the two ends; 
then subtract the quotient from the radius, and the remain- 
der is the versed sine. 

The diameter AB {Fig. 114) equals 12 inches; CD equals 

5 inches ; the slant height DB equals 10 inches ; required 
the radius : 10 X 6 = 60 -=- 2 = 30 inches, radius. 

The diameter AB equals 12 niches; CD equals 8 inches: 
the altitude 10, 9.79 inches; required versed sine : 9.79 X 

6 = 58.74 -H 2 = 29.37 ; 30 — 29.37 =.6t„ versed sine. 




^ig. "5- 

To draw a Figiwe having Straight Sides and Semicircular 
Ends. — Draw a line AB (Fig. 115) equal to the given 
length ; make AO and BO' each equal to half the given 
width. Through O and O' draw indefinite lines perpen- 
dicular to AB ; with O and O' as centres and OA as radius 
describe arcs cutting the perpendiculars through O and O' 
in DF and GE. Join DE, GF 3 this will complete tiie 
hgure required. 



PRACTICAL GHOMETRY. 



>^'' 



Fig. fi6. 



Geometry is tlie science which investigates and demon- 
strates the properties of lines on surfaces and solids ; hence, 
Practical Geometry is the method of applying the rules 
of science to practical purposes. 

Fi'om any given point, in a straight line, to 
erect a perpendicular ; or, to make a line at right 
angles with a given line — On each side of the 
point A (Fig. ii6j from which the line is to be 
made, take equal distances, as AB, AC ; and 
from B and D as centres, with any distance 
greater than BA or Cx\, describe arcs cutting 
each other at D; then will the line AD be the 
perpendicular required. 

When a perpendicular is to be made at or 
near the end of a given line. — With any con- 
venient radius, and with any distance from 
the given line AB (Fig. T17), describe a por- 
tion of a circle, as BAG, cutting the given 
point in A ; draw, through the centre of the 
circle N, the line BNG ; and a line from the 
point A, cutting the intersection at C, is the perpendicular 
required. 

T^ bisect ct given line {divide a line 
into two equal parts). — Let AB (Fig. 
iiS^ be the given line. With A as a cen- 
tic and any radius greater than half its 
length, describe an indefinite arc ; and 
with B as centre and same radius, de- 
scribe an arc intersecting the former arc 
in points P and Q. Draw a ling through 
P and Q ; this will bisect AB? 





98 TIN, SHF.ET-IEOy AND COPPER-PLATE WOKKEE. 




T< 



To divide a line into any num- 
ber of equal parts. — Let AB ( Fig. 
119) be the given line. From 
one of its extremities, say A, 
draw a line A3 at any angle 
to AB, and on it, from the an- '^" "^ 

gular point, mark off as many parts — of any convenient 
length, but all equal to each other — as AB is to be divided 
into. Say that AB is to be divided into three equal parts, 
and that the equal lengths mari^ed off on A3 are A to i, i 
to 2, and 2 to 3. Then join point 3 to the B extremity of 
AB, and through the other points of division, here i and 
2, draw lines parallel to 3B, cutting AB in C and D. Then 
AB is divided as required. 

To do the same otherwise. — From the given 
point A (^Fig. 120 », with any convenient ra- 
dius, describe the arc DCB ; from D, cut the 
arc in C, and from C, cut the arc in B; also, 
from C and B as centres, describe arcs cut- 
ting each other in T ; then will the line AT 
be the perpendicular as required. 

Note. — When the three sides of a triangle are in the 
proportion of 3, 4, and 5 equal parts, respectively, two of 
the sides form a right angle ; and observe, that in each of 
these or the preceding problems, the perpendiculars may 
be continued below the given lines, if necessarily required. 

To bisect any given angle.— ¥vo\n the 
point A (Fig. 121) as a centre, with any ra- 
dius less than the extent of the angle, de- 
scribe an arc as CD; and from C and D as 
centres, describe arcs cutting each other at 
B ; then will the line AB bisect the angle as 
required. C 1. 



D 



A 

120 




PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 




Ig. 122. 



To U'iseci {divide into three equal 
angles) a right angle. — With centre 
B (Fig. 122) and any radius, describe 
the arc i, 2; witli the centres i and 
2 and the same radius, describe the 
arcs 3 and 4. Draw B3 and B4 and 
the right angle will be trisected into 
three equal angles. 

To describe a triangle in a circle. — 
From any point of the periphery (Fig. 
123) describe with the radius of the 
circle an arc passing through the centre 
of the circle. By now joining the in- 
tersecting points a and b \^ 2. line, one 
side of the required triangle is obtained. 
With this line as a radius, describe arcs 
from a and b, intersecting in c ; then join «, b, c, which 
will complete the required triangle. 

To find the centre of a circle. — Draw 
the chord a b (Fig. 124). From the 
terminal points of this chord describe, 
with any convenient radius, an arc in- 
tersecting in c and d ; through the in- 
tersection draw a straight line meeting 
the circle in e. This line c e now con- 
tains a diameter, viz., e f, and by di- 
viding this diameter into two equal 
parts, the centre (d) is found. 

To find the length of any given arc 
of a circle. — With the radius AC 





Fig. 124. 



(Fi 



g. 125) equal to 



the length of 




the chord of the arc AB, and from 

A as a centre, cut the arc in C ; also, from B as a centre, 

with equal radius, cut the chord in B ; draw the line CB ; 

L.ofC. 



100 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 




Fig. 126. 



and twice the length of the line is the length of the arc 
nearly. 

To find the centre of a circle or radius, 
that shall cut any three given points, not in 
a direct line. — From the middle point B 
(Fig. 126) as a centre, with any radius, as 
BC, BD, describe a portion of a circle, as 
CSD: and from R and T as centres, with 
an equal radius, cut the portion of the cir- 
cle in CS and DS ; draw lines through 
where the arcs cut each other ; and the intersection of the 
lines at S is the centre of the circle as required. 

Through a?iy given point, to draw a 
tangent to a circle. — Let the »given 
point be at A (Fig. 127); draw the 
line AC, on which describe the semi- 
circle x\DC ; draw the line ADE, cut- 
ting the circumference in D, which is 
the tangent as required. 

To draiu from or to the cir- 
cumference of a circle lines 
tending towards the centre, 
when the centre is inaccessible. 
— Divide the whole or any 
given portion of the circum- 
ference into the desired number of equal parts ; then, with 
any radius less than the distance of two divisions, describe 
arcs cutting each other, as Ai, Bi, C2, D2, etc. (Fig. 128); 
draw the lines Ci, B2, D3, etc., which lead to the centre 
as required. 

To draw the end lines. — As AR, FR ; from C describe 
the arc R, and with the radius CI, from A or F as centres, 
cut the former arcs at R, or R', and the lines AR, FR, will 
tend to the centre as required. 




PitACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



101 



To describe an arc or segment of a circle of large radii.-— 
Of any suitable material, construct a triangle, as ABC 
(Fig. 129); make AB, BC, each equal in length to the 
chord of the arc DE, and in height twice that of the arc 





■ig. 130. 



c:::^ — "nr^:::^ 

Fig. 129. 

BB. At each end of the chord DE fix a pin, and at B, in 

the triangle, fix a tracer (as a pencil), move the triangle 

along the pins as guides ; and the traces will describe the 

arc required. 

Or oth erwise. — Draw the 

chord ACB (Fig. 130 >; also, 

draw tlie line HDI, parallel 

with the chord, and equal to 

the height of the segment ; 

bisect the chord in C, and erect the perpendicular CD; 
join AD, DB; draw AH perpendicular to AD, and BI per- 
pendicular to BD; erect also the perpendiculars A ;? and 
B;?; divide AB and HI into any number of equal parts; 
draw the lines i, i, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; likewise divide the 
lines A ;/, B ;/. eacli into half the number of equal parts, 
draw lines to D from each division in the lines Kn, B n, 
and through where they intersect the former lines describe 
a curve, which will be the arc or segment required. 

To describe a parabola, the dimensiofis being given. — Eet 
AB (Fig. 131) equal the length, and CD the breadth of 



^ 



m 



-f^ y 



^ 



Fig. !3i. 



102 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



through each intersection \vill form the 



the required parabola; divide CA, CB into any nwniber o4' 
equal parts; also, divide the perpendiculars A a and B /' 
into the same number of equal parts; then from a and /> 
draw lines meeting each division on the line ACB, and a 
curve line drawn 
parabola required. 

To describe an elliptic arch, the 
width and rise. -of span being given. — 
Trisect with 'a line at right angles 
the chord or span AB (Fig. 132); 
erect the perpendicular A q, and 
draw the line q D equal and paral- 
lel to AC, bisect AC and A q in r 
and n; make C / equal to CD, and 
draw the line/r^/ draw also the 

line ;/ s D; bisect .v D with a line at right angles, and meet- 
ing the line CD in g; draw the line g q, make CP equal to 
C k, and draw the line g P // then from g as a centre, with 
the radius^ D, describe the arc s D /; and from k and P 
as centres, with the radius A k, describe the arcs A s and 
B i, which completes the arch as required. Or^ 





f 



Bisect the chord AB (Fig. 133), 
and fix at right angles any straight 
guide, as b c; prepare, of any suit- 
able material, a rod or staff, equal 
to half the chord's length, as d ef; 
from the end of the staff, equal to 
the height of the arch, fix a pin e, ^^* '33- 

and at the extremity a tracer/"; move the staff, keeping its 
end to the guide and the fixed pin to the chord; and the 
tracer will describe one-half the arc required. 

To obtain by measurejnent the length of any direct line, 
though iiitercepted by some matet'ial object. — Suppose the dis- 
tance between A and B (Fig. 134) is required, but the 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



103 



right line is intercepted by the object C. On the point d, 
with any convenient radius, describe the arc c c; make the 
arc twice the radius in length, through which draw the line 
dee, and on e describe another arc equal in length to once 
the radius, as eff; draw the line e f r equal to e f d; on r 




?• '34- 

describe the arc / /, in length twice the radius ; continue 
the line through rj, which will be a right line, and make 
d Cy or e r, equal to the distance between d r, by which the 
distance between A and B is obtained as required 

To insaibe any regular polygon in a 
given circle. — Divide any diameter, as AB 
(Fig. 135), into so many equal parts as the 
polygon is required to have sides ; from A 
and B as centres, with a radius equal to the 
diameter, describe arcs cutting each other 
in C; draw the line CD through the second 
point of division on the diameter e, and 
the line DB is one side of the polygon required. 

To describe any regular pol- 
ygon, the length of one side 
being given. — Let AB (Fig. 
136) be the given side of, say, 
a 'hexagon. With either end^ 
here B, as centre and the 
length of the given side as 
radius, describe an arc. Pro- 
duce AB to cut the arc in X. 




Fig- '35- 




104 TIN, SHEETJROX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Divide the semicircle thus formed into as many equal parts 
as the figure is to have sides (six), and join B to the second 
division point of the semicircle, counting from X. This 
line will be another side of the required polygon. Having 
now three points. A, B, and the second division point from 
X, draw a circle through them, and as a regular polygon 
can always be described in a circle, mark off the length 
BA round the circumference from A until at the last mark- 
ing off, the free extremity of the second side (the side 
found) of the polygon is reached ; then, beginning at A, 
join each point in the circumference to the next following; 
this will complete the polygon (hexagon). 




To fonti a circle equal in area lo 
a given ellipse. — Draw the axis of 
the ellipse ; bisect it and erect in 
the centre c (Fig. 137) the perpen- 
dicular c b ; ^ ^ is then one-half of 
the large, and c b one-half of the 
small, axis of the oval. By joining 
c b Xo a c the point d is found ; a d 

is now the diameter of the circle, and by bisecting it (in e) 
the centre is found. 

To construct a square upon a given 
right line. — From A and B (Fig. 138) 
as centres, with the radius AB, de- 
scribe the arcs A c b, ^ c d, and from 
c, with an equal radius, describe the 
circle or portion of a circle c d. AB, 
be; from b d cut the circle at e and e ; 
draw the lines A e, B e, also the line 
St, wliich. completes the square as required 




To form a square equal in area to a given triangle. — Let 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



105 




ABC (Fig. 139) be the given tri- 
angle ; let fall the perpendicular 
B d, and make A e half the height 
^B; bisect e C, and describe the 
semicircle ^ ;/ C ; erect the perpen- Fig. 139. 

dicular A i-, or side of the square, 
then Kstx is the square of equal area as required. 




Fig 140 

To form a triangle equal in area to a circle : 

Preliminary re?narks. — A cord stretched over the circum- 
ference of a disk 7 inches in diameter measures, from end 
to end, 22 inches. Hence, the diameter is 7 inches, and 
the circumference 22 inches. This proportion holds good 
for all circles, no matter how large or how small. Hence, 
the geometrical rule : 

The diameter of a circle is to the periphery as 7 : 22 ; or, 
still more accurately, as 100 : 314. 

For the sake of simplicity the proportion 7 :'22 is here 
used. 

The solution of the problem is as follows : Draw a per- 
pendicular diameter (Fig. 140) and divide it into 7 equal 
parts. Then draw tangential ly to the circle a horizontal, 
and measure off "on it 22 such parts, best 11 to the left and 
II to the right. Now, by connecting both points of the 
horizontal with the centre of the circle a triangle is formed, 
which is equal in area to the circle, because, by dividing 



106 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER=PLATE WORKER. 




the periphery into 22 equal parts, and drawing from every 
point ot^ division a radius towards the centre, the entire 
area of the circle is divided into 22 triangles having an 
equal altitude (the radius) and an equal base (the arc of 
the circle). The correctness of this construction is shown 
by the application of the rule that triangles of equal bases 
and equal altitudes are equal to each other. 

To form a square equal in area to 
a give?! rectangle. — Let the line AB 
(Fig. 141) equal the length and 
breadth of the given rectangle ; bi- 
sect the line in e, and describe the 
semicircle ADB; then from A with 

the breadth, or from B with the length, of the rectangle, 
cut the line AB at C, and erect the perpendicular CD, 
meeting the curve at D, and CD will equal a side of the 
square required. 

To find the length for a rect- 
angle whose area shall be equal 
to that of a given square, the 
breadth of the rectangle being 
also given. — Let ABCD (Fig. 
142) be the given square, and 
DE the given breadth of 
rectangle ; continue the line 
BC to F, and draw the line DF; also, continue the line 
DC to ^, and draw the line A^ parallel to DF; from the 
intersection of the lines at ^, draw the line gd parallel to 
DE, and E^ parallel to D^; then ED ^^ is the rectangle 
as required. 

To describe a circle of greatest di- 
ameter in a given triangle. — Bisect 
the angles A and B (Fig. 143) and 
draw the intersecting lines AD, 
BD, cutting each other in D ; then 



E F 

Z^ 


d 


c 


.^^''''^ 



B 

Fig. 142. 




PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



107 




from D as centre, with the distance or radius DC, describe 
the circle C <?/, as required. 

To bisect any given triangle. — Suppose 
ABC (Fig. 144) the given triangle; bi- 
sect one of its sides, as AB in e, from 
which describe tlie semicircle ArB; bi- 
sect the same in r, and from B, with the 
distance Br, cut the diameter AB in v ; 
draw the line z'^ parallel to AC, which 

will .bisect the triangle as required. c- 

^ -^^.^ ■ ^ ^ . Fig. 144. 

To form a rectangle of greatest smface in 
a given tria?igle. — Let ABC (Fig; 145) be 
the given triangle ; bisect any two of its 
sides, as AB, BC, in e and d ; draw the line 
ed; also at right angles with the line ^ ^/, 
draw the lines ep, dp, and eppd is the 
rectangle required. 

To inscribe ivithin a given 
equilateral triangle three equal 
semicircles kavifig their diam- 
eters adjacent and equal. — 
Let ABC (Fig. 146) be the 
equilateral triangle. Bisect 
the angles of the triangle by- 
lines A «, B ^, and C c. Join 
ab, and on this line describe 
a semicircle touching the sides 
of the triangle. To avoid 
confusion of lines, this semicircle is omitted in the figure, 
only the point (^/) where it would cut b a being shown. 
From ^draw a line parallel to cK, cutting <^ B in e ; from 
<? draw a line parallel to b a, cutting A ^ in/. Draw fg 
parallel to CA ; join^^ by a line parallel to BC. Then 




Fig. 146. 



108 



IX, SHEET-IKON AM) (oPPEK-PJ.A 1 E WOKKER. 



^/,/^and g e will be the adjacent diameters of three semi- 
circles, the curves of which will touch the triangle ABC. 

To inso'ibe i?i a given circle three 
equal semicircles having their diam- 
eters adjacent. — Find the centre of 
the circle A 'Fig. 147J ; draw the 
diameter BC, and from B and C 
set off the radius of the circle, thus 
dividing it into six equal parts in 
EG, FD; draw EF and GD ; draw 
the radius AH at right angles to 
BC ; from F set off FI equal to FH, 
thus trisecting the quadrant HB in FI ; from I draw a line 
to G, cutting EF in J ; from A set off AK and AL equal to 
AJ ; join JK, KL and LJ, which will give the adjacent 
diameters of the three required semicircles, the centres of 
which will be at M, N, O. 




DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS TO FRACTIONAL 
PARTS OF LINEAL MEASUREMENT. 





One Inch the Integet 


' (?r Whole Number. 




.96875 


are equal to 


i ^nd 3^^ 


.46875 are equal to 


f and 3^ 


•9375 


" 


1 and j\ 


•4375 


f and J^ 


.90625 


(( 


1 and -Jj 


.40625 " 


f and 3V 


.875 


" 


1 


•375 


1 


•84375 


" 


1 and 3\ 


•34375 


i and 33^ 


.8125 


u 


1 and Jj 


.3125 


i and jJg 


.78125 


K 


1^ and Jj 


.28125 " 


t and J^ 


•75 


H 


■=!• 


.25 


\ 


.71875 


tt 


i- and j\ 


.21875 


\ and 3% 


.6875 


(( 


1 and -jig 


.1875 


\ and -j-V 


.65625 


(t 


1 and 3V 


.15625 " 


\ and J^ 


.625 


i( 




.125 


•|- 


•59375 


(I 


^ and 3^2^ 


•09375 


-h 


.5625 


(I 


1 and Jg 


.0625 '< 


iz 


.53125 


(( 


i and ^\ 


.03125 


-h 


.5 


(( 


i 







PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



109 



One Foot or 12 Inches the Integer. 



.9106 are 


equal to 


II inches. 


.1666 are equal to 


2 


■^^ZIZ 


<< 


10 " 


.0833 


I 


75 


(( 


9 " 


.07291 


1^ 


6666 


i< 


8 " 


.0625 " 


\. 


.5833 


« 


7 *' 


.05208 " 


. . 


'5 


u 


6 « 


.04166 " 


■ ■ 


.4166 


«< 


5 *' 


.03125 




Zl^l 


M 


4 " 


.02083 " 




^5 


« 


3 « 


.01041 «• 



2 inches. 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 

Mensuration is that branch of Mathematics which is 
employed in ascertaining the extension, solidities and capac- 
ities of bodies capable of being measured. 



DEFINITIONS OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS USED 
IN THE FOLLOWING CALCULATIONS. 

= Sign of Equality, as 4 + 6 = lo. 
-i- Sign of Addition, as 6 + 6 = 12, the Sum. 
— Sign of Subtraction, as 6 — 2 = 4, the Remainder. 
X Sign of Multiplication, as 8 X 3 = 24, the Product. 
-=- Sign of Division, as 24 -j- 3 = 8 or 2_4 __ g, 
■^ Sign of Square Root, signifies Evolution or Extraction of Square 
Root. 

2 Sign of to be Squared, thus 8- = 64. 
^ Sign of to be Cubed, thus 3'^ = 27. 

To Measure or Ascertain the quantity of Surface in any 
Right-lined figure, whose Sides are Parallel to each other, 
as Figs. 148, I4g and i_yo. 

Square, Rectangle. Rhomboid. 






Fig. 148. 



149. 



ig- 'SO- 



Rule. — Multiply the length by the breadth or perpen- 
dicular height, and the product will be the area or super- 
ficial contents. 

Application of the Rule to Practical Purposes. 
The sides of a square ^iece of iron are 9I inclies in 
length, required the area. 
110 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES^ 



111 



Decimal equivalent to the fraction | =.875, (See page 
108,) and 9.875 X 9875 = 97-5, etc., square inches, the 
area. 

The length of a roof is 60 ft. 4 in., and its width 25 ft. 
3 in., required the area of the roof. 

4 inches = .^s;^ and 3 inches = .25, (See table of 
equivalents,) hence, 60.333 X 25.25 = 1523.4 square feet, 
the area. 

TRIANGLES. 

To find the Area of a Triangle when the base and perpendic- 
. ular are given. 

Rule.— Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, 
and half the product is the area. 

The base of the triangle (Fig. 
151) ADB is 3 feet 6 inches in 
length, and the height, DC, i foot 
9 inches, required the area. 

6 inches = .5, and 9 inches =.75 ; 

3.5x1.75 '''^- '5'- 

hence, = 3.0625 square feet, the area. 




Any two sides of a Right- Angled Triangle being given, to 
find the third. 

When the base and perpendicular are 
given, to find the hypothenuse. 

Add the square of the base to the square 
of the perpendicular, and the square root 
of the sum will be the hypothenuse. 

The base of the triangle (Fig. 152) AB 
is 4 feet, and the perpendicular BC 3 feet, 
then 4 -[-32 = 25, .v/ 25 = 5 feet, the hypothenuse. 
When the Hypothenuse and Base are given, to find the Per- 
pendicular. 

From the square of the hypothenuse subtract the square 




Fig. 152. 



112 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

of the base, and the square of the remainder will be the 
perpendicular. 

The hypothenuse of the triangle (Fig. 152), AC, is 5 
feet, and the base, AB, 4 feet ; then 5^ — 4^ = 9, and ^/9 
= 3, the perpendicular. 

When the Hypothenuse and the Perpendicular are given, to 
find the base. 

From the square of the hypothenuse subtract the square 
of the perpendicular, and the square root of the remaindei 
will be the base. 

OF POLYGONS. 
To find the Area of a Regular Polygon, 

Rule. — Multiply the length of a side by 
half the distance from the side to the cen- 
tre, and that product by the number of 
sides ; the last product will be the area of 
the figure. 

Example. — The side AB (Fig. 153) of 
a regular hexagon is 12 inches, and the dis- 
tance therefrom to the centre of the figure, 
d c, is 10 inches; required the area of the hexagon. 
10 

— X 12 X 6 = 360 sq. in. = 2^ sq. feet. Ans. 
2 
To find the Area of a Regular Polygon, when the Side only 
' is given. 

Rule. — Multiply the square of the side by the multi- 
plier opposite to the name of the polygon in the ninth 
column of the following table, and the product will be tb*" 
area. 




MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 



113 



Table of Angles relative to the construction of Regular Polygons with 
the aid of the Sector, and of Co-efficients to facilitate their construc- 
tion without it; also, of Co-efficie)its to aid in finding the area of the 
figure, the side only being given. 







1 


,L 


;2 


£ 


^ 




1 




a 


1 




3 


'^'"-'" 

•^ M 






t 

c. 

I 


Names. 


'7, 


I 


'0 


li 


"c^ 


< 




■^ 




6 






II 




1:5 




cf 




•^ 


< 


< 


Oi 


^ 


f^ 


Pi 


< 


Triangle, 


3 


I20° 


60° 


0.28868 


1.782 


•5773 


2. 


0.438012 


Square, 


4 


90 


90 


0.5 


1-414 


.7071 


I.4I4 


I. 


Pentagon, 


5 


72 


108 


0.6882 


II75 


.8506 


1.2:58 


1.720477 


Hexagon, 


6 


60 


120 


0.866 


I 


I. 


1. 156 


2.598076 


Heptagon, 


7 


5if 


I28f 


1.0382 


.8672 


1.152 


I. II 


3633912 


Octagon, 


8 


45 


135 


1. 2071 


•7654 


13065 


1.08 


4.828427 


Nonagon, 


9 


40 


140 


^■3737 


.684 


1.4619 


1.06 


6.I8I824 


Decagon, 


lO 


36 


144 


1.5388 


.618 


1.618 


1.05 


7.694208 


Undecagon, 


II 


32A 


I47tt 


1.7028 


•5634 


1-7747 


1.04 


9-36564 


Dodecagon, 


12 


30 


150 


1.866 


.5176 


1.9318 


1037 


II.I96I52 



Note. — "Angle at centre" means the angle of radii, passing from 
the centre to the circumference, or corners of the figure. " Angle at 
circumference " means the angle which any two adjoining sides make 
with each other. 

THE CIRCLE AND ITS SECTIONS. 

Observations and Definitions. 

1. The Circle contains a greater area than any other 
plane figure bounded by the same perimeter or outline. 

2. The areas of Circles are to each other as the squares 
of their diameters; any Circle twice the diameter of 
another contains four times the area of the other. 

3. The Radius of a circle is a straight 
line drawn from the centre to the circum- 
ference, as BD (Fig. 154). 

4. The Diameter of a circle is a straight 
line drawn through the centre and termi- 
nated both ways at the circumference, as 

ABC. 
8 




H 

Fi^. 154. 



114 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER, 

5. A Chord is a straight line joining any two points of 
the circumference, as EF (Fig. 154). 

6. The Versed Sine is a straight line joining the chord 
and the circumference, as GH. 

7. An Arc is any part Of the circumference, as AEH. 

8. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a 
diameter, as AHC. 

9. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a 
chord, as EHF. 

10. A Sector is part of a circle cut off by two radii, as 
CBD. 

General Rules in Relation to the Circle. 

1. Multiply the diameter by 3.1416 ; the product is the 
circumference. 

2. Multiply the circumference by .31831 ; the product is 
the diameter. 

3. Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854, and the 
product is the area. 

4. Multiply the square root of the area by 1. 12837; the 
product is the diameter. 

5. Multiply the diameter by .8862; the product is the 
side of a square of equal area. 

6. Multiply the side of a square by 1.128 ; the product 
is the diamater of a circle of equal area. 

Application of the Rules to Practical Purposes. 

1. The diameter of a circle being 5 feet 6 inches; re- 
quired its circumference. 

5.5 X 3-1416 = 17.27880 feet, the circumference. 

2. A straight line, or the circumference of a circle, be- 
ing 17.27880 feet; required the circle's diameter corre- 
sponding thereto. 

17.27880 X -31831 = 5-5000148280 feet, diameter. 

3. The diameter of a circle is 9I inches; what is its area 
in square inches? 

9.375- = 87.89, etc., X -7854 = 69.029, etc., in., the area. 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 115 

4. What must the diameter of a circle be to contain an 
area equal to 69.029296875 square inches? 

■ v/ 69.02929, etc., = 8.3091 X 1-12837 = 9.375, 
etc., or 9I inches, the diameter. 

5. The diameter of a circle is 15^ inches; what must 
each side of a square be, to be equal in area to the given 
circle ? 

15.5 X -8862 = 13.73, etc., inches, length of side. 

6. Each side of a square is 13. 736 inches in length ; what 
must the diameter of a circle be to contain an area equal 
to the given square? 

13-736 X 1. 128 = 15.49, etc., or 15I inches, the 
diameter. 
Any Chord and Versed Sine of a circle being given, to find 
the diameter. 

Rule. — Divide the sum of the squares of the chord and 
versed sine by the versed sine, and the quotient is the diam- 
eter of corresponding circle. 

7. The chord of a circle AC (Fig. 155) 
equals 8 feet, and the versed sine BD 
equals \\ feet; required, the circle's di- 
ameter. 

82 -f 1.52 = 66.25 — 1.5 = 44.16 
feet, the diameter. 

8. In the curve of a railway I stretched 

a line 80 feet in length, and the distance from the line to 
the curve I found to be 9 inclies ; required, the circle's di- 
ameter. 

8o2-f .752= 640.5625 H- 2 == 320.28, etc., feet, 
the diameter. 

To find the Length of a?iy arc of a circle. 
Rule.— From eight times the chord of half the arc sub- 
tract the chord of the whole arc, and one-third of the re- 
mainder will be the length nearly. 




116 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKEPw. 



Required, the length of the 
arcAP]C(Fig. 156), the chord 
AB of half the arc being 8J 
feet, and the chord x\C of the 
whole arc 16 feet 8 inches. 



,5X8 = 68.0 and 68.0 — 16.666 = 




= 13-778 



feet, the length of the arc. 




To find the area of t)ic Sector of a circle. 

Rule. — Multiply the length of the arc 
by half the length of the radius. 

The length of the arc ABC (Fig. 157) 
equals 9^ inches, and the radii DA, DC, 
equal each 7 inches ; required, the area. 

9-5 X 3-5 = Zl-^S inches, the area. 

To find the area of a Segment of a circle. 

Rule. — Find the area of a sector whose arc is equal to 
that of the given segment, and if it be less than a semicir- 
cle, subtract the area of the triangle formed by the chord 
of the segment and radii of its extremities ; but if more 
than a semicircle, add the area of the triangle to the area 
of the sector, and the remainder or sum is the area of the 
segment. 

Thus, suppose the area of the segment ABCE (Fig. 157) 
is required, and that the length of the arc ABC equals 19A 
feet, DA and DC each equal 14 feet, and the chord AC 
equals 16 feet 8 inches ; also, the perpendicular ED equals 
7j feet. 



19.5 X 7 = 136.5 ft., the area of the sector, 

— 62.49 ft. the areaof the triangle, 136.5 — 
ft., the area o{ the segment. 



id.dd^^ X 7-5 



62.49= 74-OI 




MENSURATION OF SUTiFACES. 117 

To find iJie area of tJie space coiiUiined between two Concen- 
tric Circles or the area of a Circular Ring. 
Rule i. — Multiply the sum of the inside and outside 
diameters by their difference and by .7854; the product is 
the area. 

Rule 2. — The difference of the areas 
of the two circles will be the area of 
the ring or of the space required. 

Suppose the external circle AD (Fig. 
158) equals 4 feet, and the internal 
circle BC 2\ feet ; required, the area ^^I ^ 

of the space contained between them 
or area of a ring. 

4 + 2.5 = 6.5 and 4 _ 2.5 = 1.5 ; hence, 6.5 X i-5 X 
.7854 = 7.65 feet, the area; or, 
The area of 4 feet is 12 566 ; the area of 2.5 is 4.9081. 
(See table of areas of circles.) 

12.566 — 4.9081 = 7.6579, the area. 

To find the area of an Ellipse or Oval. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameters together and their pro- 
duct by .7854. 

An oval is 20 inches by 15 inches; what are its super- 
ficial contents ? 20 X 15 X -7854 = 235.62 inches, the area. 

To find the circujnference of an Ellipse or Oval. 

Rule. — Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 
3.1416; the product will be the circumference. 

Example. — An oval is 20 inches by 15 inches; what is 
its circumference ? 

20+15 

. ___. = 17.5 X 3-1416 = 54.978 in., the circun^ference. 



118 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

OF CYLINDERS. 

To find the Convex Surface of a Cylinder. 

Rule. — Multiply the circumference by the height or 
length ; the product will be the surface. 

Example.-— The circumference of a cylinder is 6 feet 4 
inches, and its length 15 feet; required, the convex sur- 
face. 

^■ZTili X 15 = 94-995 square feet, the surface. 

OF COXES AND PYRAMIDS. 

To find the Convex Surface of a Right Cone or Pyramid. 

Rule. — Multiply the perimeter or circumference of the 
base by the slant height, and half the product is the slant 
surface; if the surface of the entire figure is required, add 
the area of the base to the convex surface. 

Example. — The base of a cone (Fig. 160) is 5 feet 

diameter, and the slant height is 7 feet ; what is the convex 

surface ? 

5 X 3-1416 = 15-70 circumference of the base and 

15-70 X 7 

= 54.95 square feet, the convex surface. 

2 

To find the Convex Surface of a Frustum of a Cone or 
Fyra??iid. 

Rule. — Multiply the sum of the circumference of the 
two ends by the slant height, and half the product will be 
the slant surface. 

The diameter of the top of a frustum of a cone (Fig. 
161) is 3 feet, the base 5 feet, the slant height 7 feet 3 
inches; required, the slant surface. 

25.12 X 7-25 
9.42 -f 15.7 = = 91.06 sq.ft., slant surface. 



MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 



119 



OF SPHERES. 

To find the Convex Surface of a Sphere or Globe {Fig. zjp). 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the 
sphere by its circumference, and the pro- 
duct is its surface ; or, 

Multiply the square of the diameter by 
3.1416 ; the product is its surface. 

What is the convex surface of a globe, 
6| feet in diameter? 
6.5 X 3-1416 X 6.5 = 132.73 square feet; 




42.25 X 3-1416 



132.73 sq. ft., the convex surface. 



MENSURATION OF SOLIDS AND CAPACITIES OF 
BODIES. 

To jitid the Solidity or capacity of any figure in the Cubical 
Torm. 

Rule. — Multiply the length of any one side by its 
breadth and by the depth or distance to its opposite side ; 
the product is the solidity or capacity in equal terms of 
measurement. 

Example. — The side of a cube is 20 inches ; what is the 
solidity ? 20 X 20 X 20 = 8000 cubic inches ; or, 
4.6296 cubic feet nearly. 

A rectangular tank is in length 6 feet, in breadth 4^ feet, 
and in depth 3 feet ; required its capacity in cubic feet ; 
also, its capacity in United States standard gallons. 
6 X 4-5 X 3 — 81 cubic feet, 81 X 1728 = 139968 -r 
231 = 605-92 gallons. 

OF CYLINDERS. 

To find the Solidity of Cylinders. 

Rule. — Multiply the area of the base by the height, and 
the product is the solidity. 



120 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Example.— The base of a cylinder is i8 inches, and the 
height is 40 inches; what is the solidity? 

iS'^ X -7354 X 40 =10178.7840 cubic inches. 

To find the Contents in Gallons of Cylindrical Vessels. 

Rule. — Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts 
of an inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the height, 
then multiply the product by .0034 for wine gallons, or by 
.002785 for beer gallons. 

Example. — How many United States gallons will a cyl- 
inder contain, whose diameter is 18 inches and length 30 
inches ? 

18^ X 30 = 9720 X .0034 = 33.04, etc., gallons. 

OF CONES AND PYRAMIDS. 

To find the Solidity of a Cone or a Fyratnid. 

Rule. — Multiply the area of the base by 
the perpendicular height, and I the product 
will be the solidity. 

Example. — The base of a cone (Fig. 160) 
is 2|- feet, and the height is 3I feet ; what 
is the solidity? 

2.25 X. 7854x3 75 '''^•'^°' 

■ = 497 cubic feet, the solidity. 

3 
To find the Solidity of the Fi'ustum of a Cone. 

Rule. — To the product of the diameters of the ends 
add \ the square of the difference of the diameters ; mul- 
tiply the sum by. 7854, and the product will be the mean 
area between the ends, which multiplied by the perpendic- 
ular height of the frustum, gives the solidity. 

Example. — The diameter of the large end of a frustum 
of a cone (Fig. 161) is 10 feet, that of the smaller end is 




MENSURATIO.^ OF SOLIDS, 121 



d 



6 feet, and tlie perpendicular height 12 feet; 

what is the solidity ? 

10 — 6 = 4"^ = 16 -i- 3 = 5.333 square of 
difference of ends; and 10 X 6 + 5.333 
-= 65.333 X .7854 X 12 = 615.75 cubic p,^ ^g, 

feet, the solidity. 

2o find the Contents in U. S. Standard Gallons of the Frus- 
turn of a Cofte. 

Rule. — To the product of the diameters in inches, and 
decimal parts of an inch of the ends, add | the square of 
the difference of the diameters. Multiply the sum by the 
perpendicular height in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch, and multiply that product by .0034 for wine gallons, 
and by .002785 for beer gallons. 

Example. — The diameter of the large end of a frustum 
of a cone (.Fig, 161) is 8 feet^ that of the smaller end is 4 
feet, and the perpendicular height 10 feet ; what are the 
contents in United States standard gallons? 
96 — 48 = 48^ = 2304 ^ 3 — - 768 ; 96 X 48 + 768 = 
5376 X 120 X -0034 = 2193.04 gallons. 

To fi?id the Solidity of the Ff-ustum of a Pyramid, 
Rule. — Add to the areas of the two ends 
of the frustum the square root of their prod- 
uct, and this sum multiplied by \ of the 
perpendicular height will give the solidity. 

Example, — What is the solidity of a hex. 
agonal pyramid (Fig. 162), a side of the Fig. 162. 
large end, AB, being 12 feet, and one of the 
smaller ends 6 feet, and the perpendicular height 8 feet? 
374.122 + 93.53 = v/ 34991-63 = 590-811 374122 -(- 

1058.463X8 
93-53 -^ 590-811 = — ■ = 2822.568 

3 

cubic feet, the solidity. 




123 TIN, SHEET-JiioN AND COPPER-PLATK WORKER. 

To find the Solidify of a Sphere. 

Rule. — Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236, 
and the product is the solidity. 

Example. — What is the solidity of a sphere (Fig. 159), 
the diameter being 20 inches ? 
2o3 = 8000 X -5236 = 4188.8 cubic inches, the solidilv 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS. ETC. 



Weight of Square Rolled Irofi, from 1-4 Inch to 12 
Inches, and i Foot in Length. 



Size in 


Weight 


Size in 


_ Weight 


Size in 


Weight 


Inches. 


in Pounds. 


Inches. 


in Pounds. 


Inches. 


in Pounds, 


I 


0.2 


3i 


357 


6i 


142.8 


1 


0.5 


3f 


38.5 


6| 


154.0 


\ 


0.8 


32 


41.4 


7 


165.6 


1 


1-3 


3| 


44.4 


7i 


177.7 


1 


1.9 


3if 


47-5 


n 


190.1 


i 


2.6 


38 


50.8 


n 


203.0 




34 


4 


54-1 


8 


216.3 


li 


4-3 


4i 


57-5 


8i 


230.1 


li 


5-3 


:i 


61. 1 


8, 


244.2 


i-i 


6.4 


647 


8f 


258.8 


17 


7.6 


4^ 


68.4 


9 


273-8 


i| 


8.9 


41 


72.3 


9i 


289.2 


if 


10.4 


4! 


763 


9i 


305 I 


^l 


11.9 


4i 


80.3 


91 


321.3 


2 


13.5 


5 


84.5 


10 


337-9 


2- 


153 


s\ 


88,8 


loi 


355-1 


2^ 


17. 1 


s\ 


93-2 


10^- 


3727 


2| 


19.1 


5f 


97 7 


I03 


390.6 


2^^ 


21. 1 


5i 


102.2 


II 


409.0 


2f 


23-3 


51 


107,0 


"3 


427.8 


2| 


25.6 


51 • 


1118 


I \\ 


4470 


2| 


27.9 


5l 


116.7 


ii| 


466.7 


3 


30.4 


6 


121.7 


12 


486.7 


. 3i 


330 


6i 


132.0 







Weight of Flat Rolled Iron, from 1-8 X 1-2 Inch to 
1X6 Inches. 



Thick. Width. 

i 


Weight 
in Lbs. 


Thick. 

'i 


Width. 


! 


Thick, Wid.h, Wdg^' 

1 1 


>1 


i 


0.21 1 
0.264 
0.316 
0.369 


I 


0.422 

0.475 

0.8 

I.I 




2X 


13 

1-5 
1.7 
1-9 



123 



124 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPEK-PLA'J E WORKER. 
Table Continued. 



Thick. 


Width. 


Weigiit 
in Lbs. 

. -^ - 
2.1 


Thick. 


Width. 


Weight 
in Lbs. 


Thick. 
X 


Width. 


Weight 
in Lbs. 


X 


^% 


/8 


6 


7.6 1 


4X 


9.0 


>r 


2X 


2-3 


>^ 


I 


1.7 ! 


X 


4X 


9-5 


% 


3 


2-5 


1 >^ 


iX 


2.1 j 


X 


4X 


lO.O 


% 


3X 


2.7 


>^ 


iX 


2-5 1 


Xs 


5 


10.6 


X 


3X 


3-0 


% 


iX 


3.0 1 


X 


5X 


U.I 


X 


3X 


3-2 


% 


2 


34 1 


X 


5X 


11.6 


X 


4 


3-4 


X 


2X 


3-8 ! 


>^ 


5X 


12. 1 


X 


4X 


3-6 


X 


2X 


4.2 1 


X 


6 


12.7 


X 


4X 


3-8 


X 


2X 


4.6 ; 


X 


I 


2.5 


X 


4X 


4.0 


X 


3 


51 


X 


"X 


3.2 


X 


5 


4.2 


X 


3X 


5-5 1 


i X 


iX 


3.8 


X 


5X 


4-4 


X 


3X 


5-9 


. X 


iX 


44 


X 


5K 


4.6 1 


X 


3X 


6.3 


X 


2 


51 


X 


5X 


4.9 ^ 


X 


4 


6.8 


X 


2X 


5-7 


X 


6 


5-1 f 


X 


4X 


7.2 


X 


2X 


6.3 


^8 


I 


•■3 ! 


X 


4X 


7.6 


X 


2X 


7.0 


/s 


iX 


1.6 


X 


4X 


8.0 


H 


3 


7.6 


Ks 


I>^ 


1.9 


X 


5 


8.4 


X 


3X 


8.2 


rs 


iX 


2.2 


X 


5X 


8.9 


X 


3X 


8.9 


/8 


2 


2-5 


X 


5X 


93 


: X 


3X 


9-5 


^ 


2X 


2.9 


X 


5X 


9-7 


i X 


4 


iO.l 


Ks 


2X 


3-2 


X 


6 


lO.I 


1 ^ 


4X 


,0.8 


Ks 


2X 


3-5 


)^ 


I 


2.1 


i X 


4X 


11.4 


Ks 


3 


3-8 


1^ 


iX 


2.6 


i X 


4X 


12.0 


/8 


3X 


4.1 


Y^ 


iX 


3-2 


i X 


5 


12.7 


^8 


3K 


4-4 


Y^ 


IX 


3-7 


! X 


5X 


13-3 


^8 


3X 


4.8 


^ 


2 


4.2 


r 


5X 


13-9 


^8 


4 


51 


>^ 


2X 


4.8 


5X 


14.6 


/8 


4X 


5.4 


>^ 


2X 


5-3 , 


X 


6 


15.2 


/8 


4X 


57 


X 


2X 


5.8 




iX 


5-1 


/8 


4X 


6.0 


X 


3 


6.3 




2 


6.8 


/8 


5 


6.3 


X 


3X 


6.9 




3 


lO.I 


/8 


5X 


6.7 


X 


3X 


7-4 


I 


4 


135 


/8 


5X 


7.0 


X 


3X 


7-9 


I 


5 


16.9 


K8 


5X 


7-3 


X 


4 


8.4 




6 


20.3 



Weight of Round Rolled Iron^ from 1-4 Inch to 12 



Inches 


/// Diameter, and i Foot in 


Length. 


Diamet'r in Inch's. 


Weight in Pounds. 


Diamet'r in Inch's. 


Weight in Pounds, 


X 


0.2 
0.4 
0.7 




I.O 

IS 
2.0 



TABLES OF WEIGHTS, ETC. 



125 



Table Continued. 



Diamet'rin Inch's. 


Weight in Pounds. 


1 

; Diamet'rin Inch's. 


Weight in Pounds. 




2.7 


sV^ 


69.7 


^^Yf. 


3-4 


1 5X 


73-2 


^Yat 


4.2 


sY^ 


76.7 


ips 


50 


sY2 


80.3 


IK 


6.0 


sY^^ 


84.0 


^% 


7.0 


5¥ 


87.8 


I^ 


8.1 


5^ 


91.6 


I^ 


9-3 


6 


95.6 


2 


10.6 


6^ 


103.7 


2>^ 


12.0 


^Yz 


1 12.2 


2X 


13-5 


6^4 


121.0 


2^8 


15.0 


7 


130.0 


2^ 


16.7 


1% 


139-5 


2>^ 


18.8 


7K 


1493 


2^ 


20.1 


iH 


1595 


2^ 


21.9 


8 


169.9 


3 


23.9 


Vi 


180.7 


3>^ 


25-9 


%% 


191.8 


3X 


280 


8^ 


203.3 


3^8 


30.2 


9 , 


215.0 


3^ 


32-5 


9X 


227.2 


3>^ 


34-9 


9K 


239.6 


Z% 


. 37-3 


9^ 


252.4 


3^ 


39-9 


10 


266.3 


4 


42.5 


loX 


278.9 


4^ 


45-2 


io>^ 


292.7 


4X 


48.0 


10^ 


306.8 


. 4^8 


50.8 


II 


321.2 


4>^ 


53-8 


IIX 


336.0 


4>^ 


56.8 


IIK 


3511 


4^ 


60.0 


III< 


366.5 


4^ 


631 


12 


382.2 


5 


66.8 







Weight of a Square Foot of Wrought Iron, Copper and 
Lead, from 1-16 to 2 Inches Thick. 






Wrought Iron, 
Hard Rolled. 



2.517 
5035 

7-552 
10.070 




126 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATF WORKER. 



Table Continued. 





Wrought Iron, 


Copper, 


Lead. 




Hard Rolled. 


Hard Rolled. 


T% 


12.589 


14-453 


18.456 


}i 


15.106 


17-344 


22.148 


tV 


17.623 


20.234 


25839 


%. 


20.141 


23-125 


29530 


T?^ 


22.659 


26.106 


33.222 


% 


25.176 


28.906 


36.913 


w 


27.694 


31-797 


40.604 


^ 


30.21 I 


34.688 


44.296 


13 


32.729 


37-578 


47.987 


Yi 


35-247 


40.469 


51.678 


\l 


37764 


43359 


55-370 




40.282 


46.250 


59.061 


1% 


45-317 


52.03 


66.444 


'H 


50.352 


57.813 


73-826 


1^8 


55-387 


63-594 


81.210 


'K 


60.422 


69-375 


88.592 


iM 


65.458 


75-156 


95-975 


^H 


70.493 


80.938 


103-358 


i^ 


75-528 


86.719 


110.740 


2 


80.563 


92.500 


118.128 



Weight of Copper Bolts, from 1-4 to 4 Inches in Diajneter, 

and I Foot in Length. 




Pounds. 



7-3898 

7-9931 

9.2702 

10.6420 

12.1082 

13.6677 

15-3251 
17.0750 
18.9161 
20.8562 
22.8913 
25.0188 
27-2435 
29-5594 
33-9722 
34-4815 

37 0808 

39-7774 
42.5680 

45-4550 
48.4330 



TABLES 



OF THE 

CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES, 

To THE Nearest Fraction of Practical Measurement; also, 
THE Areas of Circles, in Inches, and Decimal Parts; Like- 
wise IN Feet and Decimal Parts, as may ke Required. 

Rules rendering ike following Tables more generally useful. 

1. Any of the areas in inches, multiplied by .04328, or 
the areas in feet multiplied by 6.232, the product is the 
number of imperial gallons at i foot in depth. 

2. Any of the areas in feet, multiplied by .03704, the 
product equals the number of cubic yards at i ft. in depth. 



meter 

in 

ches. 


cum. 

in 

;hes. 


ea in 
|uare 
ches. 


le of 
rallel 
uare. 


meter ! 

in 

ches. 


•cum. 

in 

ches. 


ea in 
uare 
ches. 

1 


rallel 
uare. 


cj c 


= r- 


•^ 0^ r- 


■ - rt cr 


, ci C 




" ^c 


.« c3 cr 




u a 


<^^ 


^-'■^ 1 


iQ ^ 


b ^ 


<c/:^ 


c/^cSc/: 


l^B 


.196 


.0030 


•0554 


! 2 


^Ya. 


3-141 


^H 


Y^ 


•392 


.0122 


.1107 


1 2>g 


6>^ 


3-546 


i^ 


fV 


.589 


.0276 


.1661 


2X 


7 


3-976 


2 in. 


% 


•785 


.0490 


.2115 


^H 


7^ 


4430 


2^ 




.981 


.0767 


.2669 


2^ 


iH. 


4.908 


2x\ 


Y% 


1. 178 


.1104 


-3223 


2YS 


^Ya 


5.412 


^^ 


tV 


1-374 


•1503 


•3771 


2^ 


8^ 


5-939 


2tV 










2^ 


9 


6.492 


2t%. 


Y^ 


1570 


.1963 


-4331 


3 


9Y^ 


7.068 


2YS 




1.767 


.2485 


-4995 


syi 


9H 


7.669 


2^ 


H 


1.963 


.3068 


•5438 


3Y 


loX 


8.296 


2YS 


H 


2.159 


.3712 


.6093 


3Ys 


loYs 


8.946 


3 in. 


H 


2.356 


.4417 


.6646 


3Y2 


II 


9.621 


3>f 




2-552 


.5185 


.7200 


3Ys 


11/8 


10.320 


3X 


f 


2.748 


.6013 


-7754 


3H 


113^ 


11.044 


3^ 


ll 


2.945 


.6903 


.8308 


3Ys 


^2% 


II 793 


3tV 










Ft. In. 


Ar'asq. i. 


Ar'as.ft. 


I 


3Ys 


•7854 


Ys 


4 


I 0^ 


12.566 


.0879 


lYs 


3Y 


.9940 


Ys & A 


aYs 


I 0^ 


13-364 


•0935 


'X 


3Ys 


1.227 


I in. 


4X 


I i^ 


14.186 


•0993 


iH 


4Y 


1.485 


It\ 


aY^ 


I 13^ 


15-033 


.1052 


^Y2 


4H 


1.767 


if\ 


4K 


I 21^ 


15-904 


•II13 


iH 


5Ys 


2.074 


lyV 


A% 


I 2% 


16.800 


.1176 


i^ 


5Y2 


2.405 


^T% 


4^ 


I 2^ 


17.721 


.1240 


i^ 


5^ 


2.761 


^H 1 


4^ 


I 3% 


18.665 


.1306 



127 



128 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



Table Coufi)uied. 






=a 



X .::.-' yj 



< -^ 



<x 



5 



6 

6J^ 



7 

7^ 
7>^ 
7^ 

lA 



^A 

8^ 
8>^ 
8^ 
8^ 



9 

9% 

9X 

9>^ 

9X 

9f^ 

9^ 

9^ 



0^ 

4>^ 
4>^ 

aA 

6 

6^ 



19635 
20.629 
21.648 
22.690 
23-758 
24.850 

25-967 
27.108 



6^ 

7^ 
8 

8>^ 
8^ 
9>^ 
9A 



28.274 
29.464 
30.679 
31-919 

34-471 
35784 
37-122 



1374 

1444 

15^5 

15S8 
1663 

1739 
1817 
1897 



10 I 



.484 
lo^l 39-871 
10^:^1 41.282 

111^142.718 
111^:44.178 
11^ 45.663 

o}i 47-173 

03:^148.707 



lA 
'^ 

2>^ 

3 

3^ 
3^ 



50265 
51.848 
53456 
55.088 

56745 
58.426 
60,132 
61.862 



aA 

\a 

6X 

(>A 

7 



63.617 
65-396 
67.200 
69.029 
70.882 

72.759 
74.662 
76.588 



1979 
2062 
2147 
2234 
2322 
2412 
2504 
2598 



2693 
2791 
2889 
2990 
3^92 
3196 
3299 
3409 



3518 
3629 
3741 
3856 
3972 
4089 
4209 
4330 



4453 
4577 
4704 
4832 
4961 
5093 
5226 

5361 



i I 


5 


ii 


.= V •r. 

- D 


^ C3 lU 


cz '~ — 


^; 


'L "i 


:.^ tX. ^ 


9 ^-V 


- " 


'-- 


E ~ 


< X — 


< '■^- 


; 10 


2 


73/8 


78.540 


-5497 


1 lo/s 


2 


lU 


80.515 


.5636 


ll 1014 


2 


8^8 


82.516 


•5776 


loA 


2 


8'/^ 


84-540 


■5917 


10% 


2 


8% 


86.590 


.6061 


loA 


2 


93/8 


88.664 


.6206 


1 lo^ 


2 


9H 


90.762 


■6353 


1 10^ 

1 


2 


10 Is 


92-855 


.6499 


! II 


2 


1014 


95-033 


-6652 


; ii/s 


2 


10^. 


97.205 


.6874 


! liH 


2 


11'^ 


99.402 


.6958 


! iiA 


2 


ii^X 


loi 623 


-7143 


11/3 


3 


oyi 


103.869 


.7290 


11^ 


3 


0/3 


106.139 


•7429 


iiU 


J 


0% 


108.434 


7590 


iiA 


3 


■x 


110.753 


-7752 


12 


•3 


J5i 


113.097 


.7916 


12^8 




2 


115.466 


.8082 


I2I4: 


3 


2K2 


117-859 


.8250 


1 123^ 


3 


2 7/, 


120.276 


.8419 


' I21/3 


3 


3^4 


122.718 


.8590 


^ 12^8 


3 


3->^8 


125.185 


.8762 


123^/ 


3 


4 


127.676 


•8937 


l27/s 


3 


aA> 


130.192 


•9113 


' 13 


3 


4¥ 


132.732 


.9291 


13/s 


3 


55^ 


135-297 


.9470 


■ 13^ 


3 


^H 


137-886 


.9642 


: uA 


3 


6 


140.500 


9835 


1 13 K 


3 


63/8 


143-139 


1. 0019 


i3>^ 


3 


63^ 


14^802 


1.0206 


133^ 


3 


7/8 


148.489 


1.0294 


13^8 


3 


7/3, 


151. 201 


1.0584 


14 


3 


7^ 


153-938 


1.0775 


143^ 


3 


8^8 


156.669 


1.0968 


145^ 


3 


83^1 


159485 


1.1193 


iaA 


3 


9^^^ 


162 295 


1. 1360 


l^Vz 


3 


9/' 


I6SI30 


1. 1569 


iaV. 


3 


9/8 


167 989 


1. 1749 


143,^ 


3 


10 14: 


170.873 


1.1961 


1 14^ 


3 


1034: 


^111^2 


1. 2164 



CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES. 



129 



Table Continued. 



ameter 
in 

nches. 


ircum. 

Feet& 
nches. 


2i ^^ 


rea in 

.quare 
Feet. 


ameter 
in 
nches. 


g 
P 




rea in 
quare 

nches. 

1 


rea in 
quare 
Feet. 


Q ^ 


U_c^ 


<C/3^ 


|<^ 


Q *"' 


C 


B. 


1 <C/iHH 

1 


<C/D 


15 


3 ii>i 


176.715' 1.2370 


20 


5 


27/, 


314 160 


2.1990 


iS>^ 


3 ii>^ 


179672 


1-2577 


20>i 


5 


3X 


318.099 


2.2265 


I5X 


3 "^ 


182.654 


1.2785 


20X 


5 


3>^ 


322.063 


2-2543 


i5>^ 


4 oX 


185.661 


1.2996 


20/8 


5 


4 


326.051 


22822 


lyA 


4 o>^ 


188.692 


1.3208 


20X 


5 


4>^ 


330.064 


2.3103 


^sH 


4 I 


191.748 


1.3422 


20Y^ 


5 


4X 


334.101 


2.3386 


^SH 


4 i>^ 


194.828 


^■Z^ZI 


20X 


5 


5>^ 


338.163 


2.3670 


15^ 


4 i^ 


197 933 


1-3855 


20J^ 


5 


5.^ 


342.250 


2.3956 


16 


42X 


201.062 


1.4074 


21 


5 


SVs 


346.361 


2.4244 


16^ 


4 2;^ 


204 2 1 6 


1,4295 


2I>^ 


5 


6/8 


350.497 


2-4533 


16X 


4 3 


207.394 


I-45I7 


21X 


5 


6X 


354-657 


2.4824 


16/8 


4 3>^ 


210.597 


I.474I 


21/8 


5 


7>^ 


358.841 


2.5117 


16K 


4 3X 


213.825 


1-4967 


21K 


5 


7X 


363-051 


2.5412 


I6^ 


4 4X 


217.077 


15195 


21)1 


5 


7^ 


367.284 


2.5708 


16^ 


4 4)^ 


220.353 


1.5424 


21X |5 


8^ 


371-543 


2.6007 


i6j^ 


4 5 


223.654 


1-5655 


21^ |5 


8X 


375-826 


2.6306 


17 


4 5^ 


226.980 


1.5888 


22 


5 


9;^ 


380.133 


2.6608 


.J7M 


4 5^/ 


230.330 


1. 6123 


22>^ 


5 


9X 


384-465 


2.6691 


I7X 


4 61^ 


233705 


1-6359 


22X 


5 


9n 


388.822 


2.7016 


ivA 


4 61^ 


237.104 


1-6597 


22^ 


5 


loX 


393203 


2.7224 


17K 


4 6^ 


240.528 


1.6836 


22X 


5 


IO_^ 


397.608 


2.7632 


i7>^ 


4 7H 


243-977 


1.7078 


22)^ 


5 


II 


402.038 1 2.7980 


17^ 


4 7X 


247.450 


1. 7321 


22X 


5 


iiX 


406.493 


2.8054 


17;^ 


4 8>g 


250.947 


1.7566 


127/^ 


5 


11^ 


410.972 


2.8658 


18 


4 8X 


254.469 


I.78I2 


23 


6 


oX 


415.476 


2.8903 


i^% 


4 8^ 


258.016 


1. 8061 


23^ 


6 


0^ 


420 004 


2.9100 


i%% 


4 9X 


261.587 


I.83II 


23X 


6 


I 


424.557 


2.9518 


18/8 


4 9X 


265.182 


1.8562 


23/8 


6 


1/8 


429-135 


2-9937 


18^ 


4 io>^ 


268-803 


1. 88 16 


23X 


6 


I^ 


AZi-IZI 


3.0129 


i8>^ 


4 loX 


272.447 


1. 907 1 


nV^ 


6 


2X 


438.363 


30261 


18^ 


4 10^ 


276.117 


1.9328 


23X 


6 


2>^ 


443-014 


3.0722 


18^ 


4 nX 


279-811 


1.9586 


^zyk 


6 


3 


447.690 


3.1081 




1 




Ft. In. 








19 


4 ">^ 


283.529 


1.9847 


2 


6 


3X8 


452.390 


3.1418 


19 ^-^ 


5 


287.272 


r.9941 


2 oX 


6 


4X 


461.864 


3-2075 


19X 


5 oK 


291.039 


2.0371 


2 oyi 


6 


aV& 


471-436 


3-2731 


19^ 


5 0^ 


294.831 


2.0637 


2 oX 


6 


5X 


481.106 


3-34IO 


I9>^ 




298648 


2.0904 


2 I 


6 


6K 


490.875 


3.4081 


T9M 


5 iM 


302.489 


2.1172 


2 ix 


6 


7X 


500.741 


3-4775 


fq4^ 


5 2 1 


306.355' 2.1443 1 


2 I>^ 


6 


8X 


510.706 


3-5468 


^9% 5 2^ 1310-245 2.1716 1 


2 IX 


6 


8^ * 520.769 1 


3.6101 



130 TIN, iSHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE AVORKEK. 



Table Continued. 



2 iN- 


c 


.S 9 ^' 


= 0. . 


\x 


d p z 


.= P ^ 


.= V . 


V z 


= c>^ 


=L -J 


' ?^y 


\\ 


.5-^ I.eS 




2 II 


2 tii^ 


^ 


< -■^. ^ 


< X "" 


^ 


£ '^ ^ 


< X h5 


■ 


2 2 16 


9^ 


530'93o 


3.6870 


3 


9 5 


1017.87 


7.0688 


2 2X16 


io>^ 


541.189 


3.7583 


3 


o;4 9 5^ 


1032.06 


7.I67I 


2 2)4 


6 


iiX 


551-547 


3.8302 


3 


0/, 9 6>^ 


IC46.35 


7.2664 


2 2^ 


7 





562.002 


3.9042 


3 


0X1 9 yVi 


1060.73 


7,3662 


2 3 


7 


03^ 


572.556 


3-9761 


3 


I 


9 8/ 


1075.21 


7.4661 


2 3X 


7 


I^ 


583.208 


4.0500 


13 


1/ 


9 9 


10S9 79 


7-5671 


2 3% 


7 


2/8 


593-958 


4.I24I 


1^ 


1/ 


9 9ji 


1 104.46 


7.6691 


2 3)^\7 


3>^ 


604.807 


4.2000 




IX 


9 10/ 


II 19.24 


7-7791 


2 4 7 


3J^ 


615-753 


4.2760 


3 


2 


9 11/ 


1134-12 


7.8681 


2 4X 7 


4^ 


626.798 


4-3521 


3 


214:, 10 Oji^ 


1149.09 


7-9791 


2 4>^i7 


5K 


637.941 


4.4302 


3 


2/10 .0^ 


1164.16 


8.0846 


2 4^ 7 


6X 


649.182 


4-5083 


3 


2/^10 1/ 


1179.32 


8.1891 


2 5 17 


7 


660.521 


4-5861 


3 


3 10 2/ 


1 19459 


8.2951 


2 5X i7 


7>^ 


671.958 


4.6665 


3 


3/ 10 3/ 


1209.95 


8.4026 


2 5Xi7 


SH 


683.494 


47467 ! 


3 


3/'io 4 


1225.42 


85091 


2 5J^i7 


9% 


695.128 


4-8274 j 


3 

1 


3/10 4H 


1240.98 


8.6171 


2 6 


7 


io)i 


706.860 


4.9081 


3 


4 10 5^ 


1256.64 


8.7269 


2 6X 


7 


11 


718.690 


4.9901 


3 


4/10 6/ 


1272.39 


8.8361 


2 6X 7 


113^ 


730.618 


50731 


3 


4/iio 7/ 


1288.25 


8.9462 


2 6^ 


8 


0^ 


742.644 


5-1573 


3 


4/ 10 8 


1304.20 


9.0561 


2 7 


8 


1/8 


754-769 


5.2278 


\3 


5 10 8^ 


1320.25 


9.1686 


2 7X 


8 


23^ 


766.992 


5-3264 


T 
J 


5/iio 9/ 


1336.40 


9.2112 


2 7;^ 


8 


2^ 


779-313 


5.4II2: 


3 


5/:io lo/s 


1352.65 


9-3936 


2 7^1 8 


3X 


791.732 


5-4982 1 


3 


5/10 11/ 


1369.00 


9.5061 


2 8 


8 


^y^ 


804.249 


5-5850 


3 


6 10 11^ 


1385-44 


9.6212 


2 8X 


8 


5/ 


816,865 


56729 


3 


6/jii 0/ 


1401.98 


9-7364 


2 8>^ 


8 


6/8 


829.578 


5-7601 


3 


6/11 1/ 


1418.62 


9.8518 


2 8^ 


8 


6^ 


842,390 


5-8491 , 
5-9398 


3 


6/|lI 2/ 


1435-36 


9.9671 


2 9 


8 


7^ 


855.300 


3 


7 |ii 3 


1452.20 


10.084 


2 9X 


8 


8/. 


868.308 


6.0291 1 


3 


7/jii 3^ 


1469.14 


10.202 


2 9)4 


8 


9/ 


881.415 


6.I20I 


3 


7/iii 4;^ 


1486.17 


10.320 


2 91^ 


8 


10 


894.619 


6.2129 


3 
3 


73< 
7" 


II 5/8 


1503-30 


10.439 


2 lO 


8 


loX 


907.922 


6.3051 


II 6/ 


1530.53 


10 559 


2 lOj^ 


8 


"/ 


921.323 


6.3981 


3 


8^11 7 


1537-86 


10.679 


2 IO>^ 9 


0/ 


934.822 


6.49 1 1 


3 


8/:ii 7/ 


1555-28 


10.800 


2 1034: 9 


1/ 


948.419 


6.5863 


3 


8/11 8/ 


1572.81 


10.922 


2 II i9 


i^ 


962.115 


6.6815 


3 


9 II 9/ 


1590.43 


11.044 


2 iiy 9 


2/ 


975.908 


6.7772 


3 


954^ II io>^ 


1608.15 


II. 167 


^ T114 9 


3/ 


989 800 


6.8738 


3 


qi/^ II 10^ 


1625.97 


II. 291 


2 il:;/^ 


4/ 


1003.79 


6.9701 


3 


9/ II 11/ 


1643 89 


11.415 



CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES. 
Table Co7itinued. 



131 



iter 
In. 




C (U tfl 


c <u . 


Z 


1— I 


s i 


•- S i 


fi <u . 


S.Scy 


g.Sca 


(Si S ^ 


sil 


s 


.Scy 


g.Scy 


1L> ^ y 


2p 


rt 




^ 5^ c 


2: crtM 


rt 




.~ 


^ S^ = 


i. O^Ph 


5 £ 


5 ^ 


<c/:r-. 


<c/: 


Q 


fit 


^ f^ 


<^^>=< 


<cr. 


3 lo 


12 Oj^ 


1661.90 11.534 


4 


8 


14 1% 


2463 01 


17.104 


3 loV 


12 IX 


1680.02 


11.666 


4 


v% 


14 8>^ 


2485.05 


17-257 


3 io>^ 


12 2 


1698.23 


II 793 


4 


^% 


14 gVz 


2507.19 


17.411 


3 lo^ 


12 2^ 


1716.54 


11.920 


4 


%% 


14 loX 


2529.42 


17.565 


3 " 


12 3^ 


1734-94 


12.048 


4 


9 


14 II 


2551-76 


17.720 


3 iiX 


12 4^ 


1753-45 


12.176 


4 


9X 


14 "^ 


2574.19 


17.876 


3 ii>^ 


12 5X 


177205 


12.305 


4 


9X 


15 o>^ 


2596.72 


18.033 


3 11^ 


12' 6 


1790.76 


12.435 


4 


9^ 


15 1/8 


2619.35 


18.189 


4 o 


12 634: 1809.56 
12 71^ 1828.46 


12.566 


4 


10 


15 2X 


2642.08 


18.347 


4 oX 


12.697 


4 


lO^ 


15 2^ 


2664.91 


18.506 


4 o)^|i2 8^1 1847.45 


12.829 


4 


lO'^ 


15 3H 


2687.83 


18.665 


4 o^ 


12 9!/^! 1866.55 


12.962 


4 


lO^ 


15 4K 


2710.85 


18.825 


4 I 


12 9^! 1885.74 


13095 


4 


ir 


15 5X 


2n?>-97 


18.985 


4 13^ 


12 1014:! 1905.03 


13.229 


4 


iiX 


15 61^ 


2757.19 


19.147 


4 iK|i2 ii>^; 1924.42 


13-364 


4 


II>^ 


15 6^ 


2780.51 


19.309 


4 i^/ 


13 oX 1943 91 


13-499 


4 


113^ 


15 1K 


2803.92 


19.471 


4 2 


1311 1963 50 


13.635 


5 





15 8>^ 


2827.44 


19-635 


4 2X 


13 ^'A 1983-18 


13772 


5 


0% 


15 9X 


2851.05 


19.798 


4 2>^ 


13 ^y% 


2002.96 


13.909 


5 


0% 


15 10 


2874.76 


19.963 


4 23^ 


13 zy% 


2022.84 


14-047 


5 


034: 


15 I03^ 


2898.56 


20.128 


4 3 


13 4X 


2042.82 


14.186 


5 


I 


15 II>^ 


2922.47 


20.294 


4 3X. 


13 5 


2062.90 


H-325 


5 


IX 


16 0^ 


2946.47 


20.461 


4 3>^ 


13 5¥ 


2083.07 


14.465 


5 


IK 


16 1% 


2970.57 


20.629 


4 3^ 


13 6>^ 


2103.35 


14.606 


5 


I^ 


16 Iji 


2994.77 


20.797 


4 4 13 7^ 


2123.72 


14.748 


5 


2 


16 234: 


3019.07 


20.965 


4 4X 


13 ^yi 


2144.19 


14.890 


5 


2X 


16 3K 


304347 


21-135 


4 4K 


13 8^ 


2164.75 


15-033 


5 


2K 


16 414: 


3067.96 


21.305 


4 4^ 


13 9^ 


2185.42 


15.176 


5 


23^ 


16 5% 


3092.56 


21.476 


4 5 


13 lo;^ 


2206.18 


15-320 


5 


3 


16 5^ 


3117-25 


21.647 


4 53^ii3 ">( 


2227.05 


15-465 


5 


3X 


16 6X 


3142.04 


21.819 


4 5K;i3 


2248.01 


15-611 


5 


3K 


16 7K 


3166.92 


21.992 


4- 514^1 H 0^ 


2269.06 


15757 


5 


ZU 


16 8X 


3191-91 


22.166 


4 6 I14 i^ 


2290.22 


15.904 


5 


4 




3216.99 


22'33,2> 


4 614:114 2^ 


2311.48 


16051 


5 


4^ 


16 9X 


3242.17 


22.515 


4 61^14 3X 


2332.83 


16.200 


5 


4K 


16 10^ 


3267.46 


22 621 


4 6^114 4 


2354.28 


16.349 


I5 


41^ 


16 11^ 


3292.83 


22.866 


4 7 114 4^ 


2375-83 


16.498 


|5 


5 


17 o>^ 


3318.31 


23043 


4 7XiH 5K 


2397.48 


16.649 


i5 


5X 


17 0^ 


3343-88 


23.221 


4 7>^|i4 6^ 


2419.22 


16.800 


15 


5K 


17 iX 


3369-56 


23330 


4 7^|i4 1% 


2441.07 


16.951 


15 


SX 


17 2>^ 


3395-33 


23578 



132 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



Table Continued. 



ameter 

in 
. & In. 


ircum. 
Feet& 
nches. 


rea in 
Iquare 
nches. 


rea in 
Iquare 
Feet. 


1 

2 


I— 1 


g 






rea in 
quare 
nches. 


rea in 
quare 
Feet. 


Q fo 


U_c^ 


< t/J 1-1 


<c/i 


Q 


fc 


U 


c '-' 


!<-. 


<c/i 


5 6 


17 3^3421.20 


^Z-lh^ 


6 


4 


19 


loX 


4536.47 


31-503 


5 6X 


17 4>^| 344716 


23-938 


6 


4X 


19 


iiX 


4566.36 


31.710 


5 6K 


17 4^13473-23 


24.119 


6 


4Xi20 


oX 


4596.35 


31-919 


5 6^ 


17 5 >^! 3499-39 


24-307 


6 


4X|20 


iX 


4626.44 


32.114 


5 7 


17 6^13525.26 


24.483 


6 


5 |20 


iX 


4656.63 


32-337 


5 1% 


17 7X13552.01 


24.666 


6 


5X!20 


2X 


4686.92 


32.548 


5 7>^ 


17 8 1 3578.47 


24.850 


6 


5X120 


ZV2 


4717.30 


32.759 


5 7X 


17 8X13605.03 


25-034 


6 


5XI20 


4X 


4747-79 32970 


5 8 


17 9^; 3631-68 


25.220 


6 


6 ^ 


5 


4778.37 


33-183 


5 3X 


17 10^:3658.44 


25-405 ! 


6 


6X120 


5X 


4809.05 


33-396 


5 8>^ 


17 "''^13685.29 


25-592 1 


6 


6X1 20 


6X 


483983 1 33-619 


5 8|< 


17 11^13712.24 


25-779! 


6 


6X 


20 


7X 


4870.70 


33-824 


5 9 


18 03/3739-28 


25.964 1 


6 


7 


20 


8X 


4901.68 


34-039 


5 9X 


18 \y. 3766.43 


26.155 j 


6 


7X 


20 


8X 


4932.75 


34-255 


5 9>< 


18 2X3793-67 


26.344 1 


6 


7X 20 


9X 


4963.92 


34-471 


5 W^ 


18 31^13821.02 


26.534 1 


6 


7X20 


loX 


4995.19 34.688 


5 io 


18 3^:3848.46 


26.725 


6 


8 I20 


"X 


5026 26 j 34.906 


5 lo^ 


18 4^3875-99 


26.916 


6 


8XI21 


oX 


5058.02 1 35.125 


5 io>< 


18 5X 3903-63 


27.108 


6 


8X 21 


o^l 5089.58 


35-344 


5 lo^ 


18 614 3931-36 


27-301 


6 


83^ 21 


iX 


5121.24 


35-564 


5 II 


18 7 i 3959-20 


27.494 


6 


9 21 


2X 


5153-00 1 35-784 


5 ii>^ 


18 7X3987-13 


27.688 


6 


9X 21 


-. 1/ 

0/4 


5184.86 36.006 


5 ii;^ 


18 8>^t40i5i6 


27.883 


6 


9X 21 


4 


5216.82 36.227 


5 ii|^ 


18 9^; 4043-28 


28.078 


6 


9X21 


4X 


5248.87 1 36.450 


6 o 


18 \o}i 4071.51 


28.274 


6 


10 21 


5X 


5281.02 1 36.674 


6- o% 


18 10^ 


4099 83 


28.471 


6 


10X21 


6X 


5313.27 136.897 


6 oK 


18 1 1 34: 


4128.25 


28.663 


6 


I0^|2I 


7X 


5345.62 37.122 


6 03^ 


19 oy. 


4156.77 


28.866 


6 


I03^i2I 


7X 


5378.07 i 37-347 


6 I 


19 \% 


4185-39 


29.065 


6 


II 121 


8X 


5410.62 \ 37.573 


6 11^ 


19 ^V% 


4214.11 


29.264 


6 


IlX|2I 


9X 


5443.26 37.700 


6 \y. 


19 2^ 4242.92 


29.466 ! 


6 


IlXi2I 


loX 


5476.00 , 38.027 


6 i^/ 


19 3)^4271.83 


29.665 
29.867 


6 


..¥ 


21 


II 


5508.84 


38.256 


6 2 


19 4X1430085 














6 2X 


19 5X 14329-95 


30.069 














6 2>^ 


19 6 ! 4359-16 


30.271 














6 2^ 


19 6^14388.47 


30-475 














^ 3 


19 7^! 4417.87 


30.679 














6 3X 


19 8^4447-37 


30.884 














6 3'^ 


19 9X 4476.97 


31.090 














6 3^ 


19 9^ 


4506.67 


31.296 















CIRCUMFERENCE OF CIRCLES. 

Table Continued. 



135 





, 


T3 . 




1 




'^ . 




Diameter 

Feet and 
Inches. 


i i' 

u 
1 

21 




< 
38 4846 


!5 -t ^ 


(5 •£ 


G (/2 


< 


7 o 


11^ 


10 


31 


5 


78.5400 


I 


22 


3 


39.4060 


I 


31 


sys 


79-8540 


2 


22 


6>^ 


40.3388 


2 


31 


iiX 


81.1795 


3 


22 


9X 


41.2825 


^^ 


32 


2^ 


82,5190 


4 


23 


o>^ 


42.2367 


4 


32 


5X 


83.8627 


5 


23 


2/^ 


43.2022 


5 


32 


SH 


85.2211 


6 


23 


63^ 


44.1787 


6 


32 


11^ 


86.5903 


7 


23 


II 


45.1656 


7 


ZZ 


2^ 


87.9697 


8 


24 


^% 


46.1638 


8 


Zl 


6;^ 


89.3668 


9 


24 


aV, 


47-1730 


9 


33 


9X 


90.7627 


lO 


24 


1% 


48.1926 


10 


34 


oys 


92.1749 


II 


24 

25 


I03^ 
I '< 


49.2236 
qO.2656 


II 


34 


3/2 


935986 


8 o 


II 


34 


^y% 


950334 


I 


25 


4)^ 


SI. 6178 


I 


34 


9y 


96.4783 


2 


25 


7^ 


52.3816 


2 


35 


oK 


97-9347 


3 


25 


II 


53-4562 


3 


35 


4>^ 


99.4021 


4 


26 


2>^ - 


54-5412 


4 


35 


7X 


100.8797 


5 


26 


5^ 


556377 ' 


5 


35 


10)^ 


102.3689 


6 


26 


8^ 1 


56.7451 


6 


36 


i,^ 


103.8601 


7 


26 


"/^ i 


57.8628 j 


7 


36 


4^ 


105.3794 


8 


27 


2,¥ 


58.9920 


8 


36 


iH 


106.9013 


9 


27 


5.V 1 


60.1321 1 


9 


36 


10^ 


108.4342 


lO 


27 


9 , 


61 2826 1 


10 


37 


2 3^ 


109.9772 


II 


28 


o>s 


62.4445 


1 1 


31 


5X 


I" 5319- 


9 o 


28 


3 '4 


636174 


12 


37 


S^/g 


113 0976 


I 


28 


63^ 


64.8006 


I 


37 


IIK 


1 14 6732 


2 


28 


9K 


65.9951 : 


2 


3^ 


2y 


1 16.2607 


3 


29 


0^ 


67.2C07 i 


3 


38 


sH 


117.85Q0 


4 


29 


3^4 


68.4166 


4 


3^ 


8^ 


1194674 


5 


29 


7 


69.6440 i 


5 


39 





121.0876 


6 


29 


IQl/g 


70.8823 


6 


39 


3H 


122.7187 


7 


30 


I^ 


72.1309 


7 


39 


6^ 


124.359S 


8 


30 


4^ 


73-3910 


8 


39 


9j^ 


126.0127 


9 


30 


7,'^ 


74.6620 


9 


40 


O-)'^ 


127 6765 


lO 


30 


ii>^ 


75-9433 


10 


40 


3V 


•29-3504 


^^ 


31 


1^4 


77-2362 


II 


40 


6^ 


131.0360 



134 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 
Table Continued. 





•^.a 


_ 




^ '^ c/ 


(_o ^ 


^ x. 










gl 

i fc 


1 - =.s 
I'M J 


is 


V 1^ 


11 • 


r^ '^ ^^ 


■^ 


^ 


<^ 


F— '"' 


'^ 


^ 


< 


13 


40 


10 


132.7326 


16 


50 


33^^ 


201.0624 


I 


41 


i>^ 


134-4391 


I 


50 


6X 


203.1615 


2 


41 


4^ 


136-1574 


i 2 


50 


9>^ 


205.2726 


3 


41 


7>^ 


137.8867 


^ 


51 


0/^ 


207.3946 


4 


41 


IO>^ 


139.6260 


4 


51 


3% 


209.5264 


5 


42 


i>^ 


141-3771 


5 


51 


ey. 


211.6703 


6 


42 


4^ 


143-1391 


6 


51 


10 


213.8251 


7 


42 


8 


144.9111 


7 


■52 


i>s 


215.9896 


8 


4.2 


iiy& 


146.6949 


8 


52 


4X 


218.1662 


9 


43 


2X 


148.4896 


^ 9 


52 


iH 


220.3537 


10 


43 


5>^ 


• 150.2943 


10 


52 


10 14 


222.5510 


II 


43 


8>^ 


152.1109 


II 

i 


53 


i/s 


224.7603 


14 


43 


113^ 


153-9484 


.7 


53 


4^ 


226.9806 


I 


44 


2^ 


155-7758 


I 


53 


8 


229.2105 


2 


44 


6 


157.6250 


2 


53 


I I >s 


231.4625 


3 


44 


9>^ 


159.4852 


3 


54 


2>^ 


2337055 


4 


45 


oX 


161.3553 


4 


54 


5^8 


235.9682 


5 


45 


3K 


163.2373 


5 


54 


8K 


238.2430 


6 


45 


6H 


165.1303 


6 


54 


ii|'^ 


240.5287 


7 


45 


9X 


167.0331 


7 


55 


2^ 


242.8241 


8 


46 


0^ 


168.9479 


8 


55 


6 


2451316 


9 


46 


4 


170.8735 


9 


55 


9/8 


247.4500 


10 


46 


7>^ 


172.8091 


10 


56 


oX 


249-7781 


II 


46 


"X 


174-7565 


II 

1 

1 


56 


3X 


252 1184 


15 


47 


iK 


176.7150 


ii8 


56 


6K 


254.4696 


I 


47 


4^ 


178.6832 


I 


56 


9^ 


256 8303 


2 


47 


7X 


180.6634 


2 


57 


0^ 


2592033 


3 


47 


10^ 


182.6545 


3 


57 


4 


261 5872 


4 


48 


2X 


184-6555 


4 


57 


7K 


263 9807 


5 


48 


5>^ 


186.6684 


5 


57 


loX 


266.3864 


6 


48 


8>4 


188.6923 


6 


58 


1X8 


268.8031 


7 


48 


11^8 


190.7260 


7 


58 


4X 


271.2293 


8 


49 


2>^ 


192.7716 


8 


58 


iV^ 


273.6678 


9 


49 


5X 


194.8282 


9 


58 


loX 


276.1161 


TO 


49 


8^ 


196.8946 


10 


59 


2 


278.5761 


II 


50 





198.9730 


II 


59 


5>^ 


281.0472. 



SIZES OF TINWARE. 



135 



Sizes of Tinware in Fo7'm of Frustum of a Cone. 

PANS. 





t« 


Uh 






<H-I 


^ 



















. 






j^ 


J- G 






.^ 


>- p 






a> 


<u C 






QJ 
























'^ i 


OJ *-> 


.x: 




OJ i 


a> i; 




, 


So 


S 


b/) 




S 


s 


to 


?:5 


.5H 


rtpq 


OJ 


J^ 


OS r-" 


rf pq 


u 


tn 


Q 


Q 


K 


CO 
2 qts. 


Q 


G 


s: 


20 qts. 


191^ In. 


13 In. 


8 In 


9 In. 


6 In. 


33/ In. 


16 " 


18 " 


iiX " 


6X " 


1 3 l^ts. 


8X " 


53^ " 


23^ " 


14 " 


15X " 


9X " 


6X " 


I pt. 


6X " 


4 


2^ " 


10 " 


14^" " 


u " 


4>^ " 


Pie. 


9 " 


7/2 " 


I^ " 


6 " 


12^ " 


9 " 


4 " 















DISH 


KETTLES AND PAILS. 








u- 


^ 






V4-, 


Vh 


























^ 


S § 






J- 


, S3 1 






<u 






<D 




















0^ 


■ 2i ^ 
So 


S 






1 ^ 

If2 


S 




|h 


§w 


11 


S^ 


c^m 


a; 


^ 


Q 


Q 


HH 


C/3 


Q 


Q 


K 


14 qts. 


13 In. 


9 In. 


9 In. 


6 qts. 


9XIn. 


S^In. 


6KIn. 


10 " 


"K " 


7 " 


8 " 


2 " 


5X " 


4 


4 " 



COFFEE POTS. 







*+H 








<*-. 


























S 


^ i 






>-i 


^ s 






















1! &, 




J5 




a; (^ 


<U 4-. 


rC 


. 


S 


S 


b/} 




S 


S c 


tU3 


?^ 


§H 


rtpq 


OJ 




.1^ 


§pq 


<u 


m 


Q 


Q 


ffi 


m 


Q 


Q 




I gal. 


4 In. 


7 In. 


8>^In. 


3 qts. 


3XIn- 


6 In. 


8>^In. 



DIPPERS. 



Size. 


Diam. 
of Top. 


Diam. 
of Bot. 


Height. 


Size. 


Diam. 
of Top. 


Diam. 
of Bot. 


Height. 


J^gal. 


6XIn. 


4 In, 


4 In. 


ipt. 


Ayi In. 


ZY^ In. 


2^' In. 



136 TIN, SHEET-IKON AND COPPER-PLATE W OKKEE. 



Tables Continued. 

MEASURES. 





<.M 


<*- 






,__ 








o 


o 






O 


O 








o C 






CJ 


"- i 






















u 








U ^ 








S X- 


S o 


'He 






1 c 


tx 


S^ 


rt .^ 




•S 1 


N 


rt r- 


rt i:; 


'S 


m 


Q ' 


/^ 


= 1 


^ 


- 


- 


- 


^ gal. SVz In. 


ey^ In. 


9XIn.| 


. pU 


21^ In. 


33^ In. 


4XIn- 


K " 


4 " 


4^ " 


8 " 1 


K " 


2/8 " 


2^ " 


3>^ " 


I qt. 


3/. " 


4 " 


5^ " 1 

i 











WASH BOWLS. 



Size. 


Diameter of 
Top. 


Large wash bowl 

Cullender 

Small wash howl 


II In. 
1 1 

9K " I 
9K " i 


Milk strainer 



Diameter ot" 
Bottom. 



Heieht. 



S}i I"- 
5K " 



In. 






DRUGGISTS AND LIQUOR DEALERS MEASURES. 










t-'g- 


103. 










^ 


I— 






^ 


^_ 






Q 



















t. 


- p 






._ 


^ ? 






o; 








ii 




^• 


« 




1? 





dj 


U Ci, 




■53 


c/: 


" 


~ 


i 


c/: 


C3 


-^ 




5 gal. 


8 In. 


1 3 14 In. 


I2^s In.i 


K gal. 


3>^In. 


6>^ In. 


6 In. 


3 


7 " 


iiK '•• 


10% " ! 


I qt. 


2K " 


5/8 " 


4% " 


2 " 


6 " 


loK " 


8^8 " 


I pt. 


2 


4 


4 


i 


3^ " 


8^ " 


VA " 


% " 


I^ " 


zH " 


3^8 " 



CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS IN U. S. GALLONS. 



i;^ 



Capacity of Cylinders in United States Gallons. 



Dia'r. \ 
Inc's. J 
Dep^h. 



I inch. 

2 

3-.-.- 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

lo 



11 .. 

12 .. 

13- 

14.. 

16. 
17. 



19 
20 

21 

22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 



31 

32 

34 

35 

36 
40 

44 
48 

54 

60 
72 



•0544 
.1088 
.1632 
.2176 
.2720 

.3264 
.3808 
•4352 
.4896 
.5440 

•5984 
.6528 
.7072 
.7616 
;8i6o 

.8704 
.9248 
I -9792 
I I 0336 

! 1.0880 

1. 1 424 
1. 1968 
1. 2512 
1-3056 
1.3600 

1.4144 
1.4688 
15232 
1-5776 
1.6320 

1.6864 
1.7408 
1-7952 
1.8496 
1.9040 

1-9584 
2.1760 
2.3936 
2.6112 
2.9376 

3.2640 

^.Qi68 



.0850 
.1700 
.2550 
•3400 
.4250 

.5100 

-5950 
.6800 
.7650 
.8500 

-9350 
1.0200 
1. 1050 
1 . 1 900 

1.2750 

1.3600 
1.4450 
15300 
I. 6150 
1.7000 

1.7850 
1.8700 
1-9550 
2.0400 
2.1250 

2.2100 
2.2950 
2.3800 
2.4650 
2 5500 

2.6350 
2.7200 
2.8050 
2.8900 
2.9750 

3.0600 
3.4003 
3.7400 
4.0800 
45900 

5 . 1 000 
6.1200 



1 9584 
2.o8c8 

2 2032 
2-3256 
2.4480 

2-5704 
2.6928 
2.8152 
2.9376 
3.0600 

3.1824 
3-3048 
3.4272 
3-5496 
3.6720 

3 7944 
3.9168 

4-0392 
4.1616 

4.2840 

4.4064 
4.8960 

53856 
5-8752 
6.6096 

7-3440 
8.8128 



6 


.1224 


.2448 1 


.3672 


.4896 


.6120 


•7344 


-8568 1 


-9792 ! 


I.IOI6 1 


1.2240 j 


i 1-3464 1 


' 1.4688 1 


: 1. 5912 i 


I 7136 1 


1.8360 i 



8 



9 



.1666 
•3332 
.4998 
.6664 
•8330 

.9996 
1. 1662 
13328 
1.4994 
1.6660 

1.8326 
1.9992 
2.1658 

2.3324 
2.4990 

2.6656 
2.8322 
2.9988 
3-1654 
3-3320 

3.4986 
3 6652 
3-8318 
3.9984 
4.1650 

4-3316 
4.4982 
4.6648 
4.8314 
4.9980 

5.1646 
53312 
54978 
5.6644 

5.8310 

59976 
6.6640 

73304 
7.9968 
8.9964 



.2176 


-2754 


•4352 


-5508 


.6528 


.8262 


.8704 


I.IOI6 


1.0880 


1.3770 


1-3056 


1.6524 


1 5232 


1.9278 


1.7408 


2.2032 


1.9584 


2.4786 


2.1760 


2.7540 



11.995: 



3-3936 

2.6II2 

2.8288 
3.0464 
3.264c 

3.4816 
3.6992 

3.9168 

4-1344 
4-3520 

4.5696 
4-7872 

5.0048 
5.2224 

5.44CO 

5-6576 

5-8752 

6.0928 
6.3104 

6.5280 
6.7456 

6 9632 

7.1808 

7-3984 
7.6160 

7-8336 

8.7040 

9-5744 

10.4448 

11.7504 

1 3. c 560 

15.6672 



3.0294 
3-3048 

5.5802 
3-8556 
4.1310 

4.4064 
4.6818 
49572 
5.2326 
5.5080 

5-7834 
6.0588 
6.3342 
6.6096 
6.8850 

7.1604 
7-4358 
7.7112 
7.9866 
8.2620 

8.5374 
8.8128 
9.0882 
9-5636 
9-6390 



9.9144 

11.0160 


I2.II76 


13.2192 

14.8716 


16.5240 

19.8288 



.as TIX, SHKET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



Table ContimieJ. 



Dia'r. ) 














Inc's. / 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Depth. 














I inch. 


.3400 


.4114 


.4896 


■5746 


.6664 


.7650 


2 


.6800 


.8228 


.9792 


1. 1492 


1-3328 


1.5300 


3 


I,02CX5 


1.2342 


1.4688 


1.7238 


1.9992 


2.2950 


4 


1.3600 


1 .6456 


1.9584 


2.2984 


2.6656 


3.0600 


5 


1.7000 


2.0570 


24480 


2.8730 


ZZZ'2-o 


3.8250 


6 


2.0400 


24684 


2.9376 


34476 


3.9984 


4.5900 


7 


2.3800 


2.8798 


34272 


4.0222 


4.6648 


5-3550 


8 


2.7200 


3.2912 


3.9168 


4-5968 


5-3312 


6.1200 


9 


3.0600 


3.7026 


4.4064 


5-1714 


5-9976 


6.8850 


lo 


3.4000 


4.1 140 


48960 


5.7460 


6.6640 


7.6500 


II 


3.7400 


45254 


53856 


6.3206 


7-3304 


8.4150 


12 


4.0800 


4.9368 


5-8752 


6.8952 


7.9968 


9.1800 


13 


4.4200 


5-3482 


6.3648 


7.4698 


8.6632 


99450 


14 


4.7600 


57596 


6.8544 


8.0444 


9.3296 


10.7100 


15 


5.1000 


6.1710 


7 3440 


8.6190 


9.9960 


11.4750 


16. ... 


5.4400 


6.5824 


7-8336 


9.1936 


10.6624 


12.2400 


17 


5.7800 


6.9938 


8.3232 


9.7682 


11.3288 


13.0050 


18 


6. 1 200 


7-4052 


8.8128 


10.3428 


11.9952 


13.7700 


19 


6.4600 


7.8166 


9-3024 


10.9174 


12.6616 


14-5350 


20 


6.8000 


8.2280 


9.7920 


11.4920 


13.3280 


15.3000 


21 


7.1400 


8.6394 


10.2816 


12.0666 


13-9944 


"6. 0650 


22 


7.4800 


9.0508 


10.7712 


12.6412 


14.6608 


10.8300 


23 


7.8200 


9.4622 


11.2608 


13-2158 


15.3272 


17-5950 


24 


8.1600 


9.8736 


11.7504 


13.7904 


15-9936 


18.3600 


25 


8.5000 


10.2850 


12.2400 


14.3650 


16.6600 


19.1250 


26 


8.8400 


10.6964 


12.7296 


14.9396 


17.3264 


19 89C0 


27 


9.1800 


II. 1078 


13.2192 


15-5142 


17.9928 


20.6550 


28 


9.5200 


II. 5192 


13.7088 


16.0888 


18.6592 


21.4200 


29 


98600 


11.9306 


14.1984 


16.6634 


19.3256 


22.1850 


30 


10.2000 


12.3420 


14.6880 


17.2380 


19.9920 


22.9500 


31 


10.5400 


12.7534 


151776 


17.8126 


20.6584 


23.7150 


32 


10.8800 


13.1648 


15.6672 


18.3872 


21.3248 


24.4800 


3.3 


11.2200 


13-5762 


16.1568 


18.9618 


21.9912 


25-2450 


34 


11.5600 


13.9876 


16.6464 


19-5364 . 


22.6576 


26.0100 


2>b 


11.9000 


14.3990 


17.1360 


20.1110 


23.3240 


26.7750 


36 


12.2400 


14.8104 


17.6256 


20.6856 


239904 


27.54C0 


40 


13.6000 


16.4560 


195840 


22 9840 


26.6560 


30.6000 


4+ 


14.9600 


18.1016 


21.S424 


25.2824 


29.3216 


33.6600 


48 


16.3200 


19.7472 


23.5008 


27.58C8 


31.9872 


36.7200 


54 


! 18.3600 


22.2156 


26 4384 


31.0284 


35-9856 


41.3100 


60 


20.4000 


i 24.6840 


29-3760 


34-4760 


39.9840 


45.9000 


72 


i 24.4800 


: 29.6208 


352512 


41.3712 


47.98C8 


55.0800 



CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS. 



139 







Tal>/e Coniinued. 






bia'r. \ 
Inc's. / 














16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


Dep^h. 














I inch. 


.8704 


.9826 


1.1016 


1.2274 


1.36CO 


1.4994 


2 


1.7408 


1.9652 


2.2032 


2.4548 


2.7200 


2.9988 


3 


2.6112 


2.9478 


3-3048 


3.6822 


4.0800 


4.4982 


4 


3.4816 


39304 


4.4064 


4.9096 


5.4400 


5-9976 


5 


43520 


4.9130 


5.5080 


6.1370 


6.8000 


7-4970 


6 


5.2224 


5.8956 


6.6096 


7-3644 


8.1600 


8.9964 


7 


6.0928 


6.8782 


7.7112 


8.5918 


9.S200 


10.4958 


8 


6.9632 


7.8608 


8.8128 


9.8192 


10.8800 


11.9952 


9 


78336 


8.8434 


9.9144 


1 1 .0466 


12.2400 


13.4946 


lO 


8.7040 


9.8260 


1 1. 0160 


12.2740 


13.6000 


14.9940 


II 


9-5744 


10.8086 


12.1176 


135014 


14.9600 


16.4934 


12 


10.4448 


II. 7912 


13.2192 


14.7288 


16.3200 


17.9928 


13 


11.3152 


12,7738 


14.3208 


159562 


17.6800 


19.4922 


14 


12.1856 


13-7564 


15.4224 


17.1836 


19.0400 


20.9916 


15 


13.0560 


14.7390 


16.5240 


18.41 10 


20.4000 


224910 


16. ... 


13.9264 


15.7216 


17.6256 


19.6384 


21.7600 


23.9904 


17 


14.7968 


16.7042 


18.7272 


20.8658 


23.1200 


25.4898 


18..... 


15.6672 


17.686^ 


198288 


22.0932 


24.4800 


26.9892 


19 


16.5376 


18.6694 


20.9304 


23.3206 


25.8400 


28.4886 


20 


17.4080 


19 6520 


22.032c 


24.5480 


27.2000 


29.9880 


21 


18.2784 


20.6346 


23-1336 


25-7754 


28.5600 


31.4874 


22 


19.1488 


21.6172 


24.2352 


27.0028 


29.9200 


32.9868 


23 


20.0192 


22.5998 


253368 


28.2302 


31.2800 


34.4862 


24 


20.8896 


235824 


26.4384 


29.4576 


32.6400 


35-9856 


25..... 


21.7600 


24.5650 


27.5400 


30.6850 


34 0000 


37.4850 


26 


22.6304 


25-5476 


28,6416 


31.9124 


35-36C0 


38.9844 


27 


23.5008 


26.5302 


29.7432 


33-1398 


36.7200 


40.4838 


28 


24.3712 


27.5128 


30.8448 


343672 


38.0800 


41.9832 


29 


25.2416 


28.4954 


31.9464 


35-5946 


39.4400 


43.4826 


30 


26 II 20 


29.4780 


11, 0480 


36.8220 


40.80C0 


44.9820 


31 


26.9824 


30.4606 


34.1496 


38.0494 


42.1600 


46.4814 


32 


27.8528 


31-4432 


35-2512 


39.2768 


43.52C0 


47.9808 


33 


28.7232 


32.4258 


363528 


40.5042 


44.8800 


49.4802 


34 


295936 


33-4084 


37-4544 


41.7316 


46.2400 


50 9796 


35 


30.4640 


34-3910 


38.5560 


42 9590 


47.60CO 


52.4790 


36 


3 1 -3344 


353736 


39.6576 


44.1864 


48.9600 


53-9784 


40 


34.8160 


393040 


44.0640 


49.0960 


54.4000 


59.9760 


44 


38.2976 


,43-234^ 


48.4704 


54.0056 


59 8400 


659736 


+8 


41.7792 


1 47.1648 


52.8768 


58.9152 


65 2800 


71.9712 


54 


47.0016 


53 0604 


!;9.4864 66.27Q6 


73 4.400 


80.9676 


60 


S2.2240 


i;? oq6o 66 0960 73 6440 


81 6000 


80.9640 


n,.,.. 


62.6688 


70.7472 79-3152 1813.3728 


97.9200 


107.9570 



X40 TIN, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WOPKER. 



Table Couiiiiue.i. 



Diameter in ) 
Inches. J 
Dep^h. 



I 

2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8, 

9' 

10 , 

11 . 

12 . 

13- 

14- 
15- 
i6. 

17- 
i8. 

19. 

20 . 

21 . 

22 . 

23- 
24. 

25- 

26. 

27 . 
28. 
29. 
30- 



34 
35 

36 
40 

44 
48 

54 
60 
72, 



inch. 



22 


23 


24 


20 

! 


1 28 


1.6456 


1.7986 1.9584 


1 2.29S4 


' 26656 


32912 


35972 3.9168 


4.5968 


1 5-3312 


4936^ 


53958 


\ 5-^75^ 


6.8952 


; 7-99^8 


6,58.-^4 


7^944 


\ 7-8336 


9 1930 


10.6624 


8.228c 


89930 


i 97920 


11.4920 


13.3280 


98736 


10.7916 


11.7504 


13.7904 


159936 


II. 5192 


I2.cq02 


13.7088 


16.0888 


18.6^92 


13 1648 


14.3888 


j 15-6672 


18.3872 


21.3248 


14.8104 


' 16.1874 


17.6250 


206856 


23.9904 


16.4560 


17.9860 


19 5840 


22.9840 


26.6560 


18. 1016 


19.7846 


21.5424 


25.2824 


29.3216 


19.7472 


21.5832 


23.5008 


27.5808 


31.9872 


21.3928 


23.3818 


25 4592 


29.8792 


.34-6528 


23.0384 


25.1804 


27.4176 


32.1776 


37-3184 


24.6840 


26.9790 


293760 


34-4760 


39.9840 


26.3296 


28.7776 


31-3334 


36-7744 


42.6496 


27.9752 


30.5762 


33-2928 


39.0728 


45.3152 


29.6208 


32.3748 


35-2512 


41-3712 


47.9808 


31.2664 


34-1734 


37.2096 


43.6696 


50.6464 


32.9120 


35-9720 


39.1680 


45.9680 


53-3120 


34-5576 


37.7706 


41.1264 


48.2664 


55-9796 


36.2032 


39-5692 


43.0848 


50.S648 


58-6432 


37.8488 


41.3678 


45-0432 


52-8632 


61.3088 


39.4944 


43.1664 


47.0016 


55.1616 


63-9744 


41.1400 


44-9650 


48.9600 


57-4600 


66.6400 


42.7856 


46-7636 


50.9184 


59-7584 


69.3056 


44.4312 


48.5622 


52.8768 


62.0568 


71.9712 


46.0768 


50.3608 


54-8352 


64-3552 


74.6368 


47-7224 


52-1594 


56-7936 


66.6536 


77.3024 


49.3680 


53-9580 


58.7520 


68.9520 


79.9680 


51.0136 


557566 


60.7104 


71.2504 


82.6336 


52.6592 


57-5552 


62.6688 


73-5488 


85.2992 


54-3048 


59-3538 


64.6272 75-8472 


87.9648 


55-9504 


61.1524 


66.5856; 781456 


90.6304 


57-5960 


62.9510 


68.5440 j 80.4440 


93.2960 


59.2416 


64.7496 


70.5024 i 82.7424 


95 9616 


65.8240 


71.9440 


78.3360 91.9360 


106.6240 


72.4064 


791384 


86.1696 101.1300 


117.2860 


78.9888 


86.3328 


94-0032 


110.3230 


127.9490 


88.8624 1 


97.1244 


105.7540 


1 24. 1 140 


143.9420 


98.7360 107.9160 


117.5040 


137.9040 


159.9360 


118.4830 


129.4990 1 


141.0050 


165.4850 


191.9230 



CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS. 



141 



Table Continued. 



Diameter in 

Inches. 
Depth. 



I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO, 

II , 

12, 

1.3 

14, 

15 

16. 

17. 
18, 

19. 
20. 

21 . 

22 . 

23- 
24. 

25 • 

^6. 
27. 
28. 
29- 
30- 

31 • 
32. 

33 • 
34. 
35- 

36. 

40, 

44' 
48. 
54- 
60. 



inch. 



30 



32 



3.0600 

6.1200 

9.1800 

12.2400 

15.3000 

18.3600 
21.4200 
24.4800 
27.5400 
30.6000 

33.6600 
36.7200 
39.7800 
42.8400 
45.9000 

48.9600 
52.0200 
5 5.. 0800 
58.1400 
61.2000 

64.2600 
67.3200 
70.3800 
73.4400 
76.5000 

79.5600 
82.6200 
85.680c 
88.7400 
91.8000 

94.8600 

97.9200 

100.9800 

104.0400 

107.1000 

1 10.1600 
122.4000 
134.6400 
146.8800 
165,2400 

183.6000 
220.3200 



3.4816 

6.9632 

10.4448 

13.9264 

17.4080 



34 



20 
24.3712 

27.8528 

3^ 3344 
34.8160 

38.2976 
41.7792 
45.2608 
48 7424 
52.2240 

55-7056 
59.1872 
62.6688 
66.1504 
69.6320 

731136 

76.5952 

80 0768 

j 83.5584 

87.0400 

90.5216 

94.0032 

97.4848 

100.9660 

104.4480 

1107.9300 
jii 1,41 10 

; 1 14,8930 
118.3740 
121.8560 

125.3380 
139.2640 
153.1900 
167.1170 
i 1 88.0060 

1 208. 8960 
1250.6750 



39304 

7.8608 

II. 7912 

15.7216 

19.6520 

23.5824 
27.5128 
31.4422 
35-3736 
39-3740 

432344 
47.1648 
5 1 095 2 
55-0256 
58.9560 

' 62.8864 
: 66.8168 
I 70.7472 
74.6776 
j 78.6080 

I 82.5384 
' 86.4688 

I 90.3992 
• 94.3296 
j 98.2600 

102.1900 
106. 1210 
1 10.0510 
113 9820 
J117.9120 

121.8420 

125.7730 
129.7030 
133-6340 
1375640 

141 4940 
157.216::) 
172.9380 
188.6590 
212.2420 

235.8240 
282.9890 



36 



4.4064 

8.8128 

13.2192 

17.6256 

22.0320 

26.4384 
30.8448 
35-2512 
39-6576 
44.0640 

48.4704 
52.8768 
57.2832 
61.6896 
66.0960 

70.5024 
74.9088 
79-3152 
83.7216 
88.1280 

92.5344 

96.9408 

101.3470 

105.7540 

110.1600 

114.5660 
118.9730 
123.3790 
127.7860 
132.1920 

136.5980 
141.0050 
145 4110 
149.8180 
154.2240 

158.63C0 
176.2560 
1938820 
211.5070 
237.9460 

264.3S40 
;i7 2610 



40 



5.4400 
10.8800 
16.3200 
21.7600 
27.2000 

32.6400 
38.0800 
43.5200 
48.9600 
54 4000 

59.8400 
65.2800 
70.7200 
76.1600 
81.6000 

87,0400 

92.4800 

97.9200 

103.3600 

108.8000 

114.2400 
119.6800 
125.1200 
130.5600 
136.0000 

141.4400 
146.8800 
152.3200 
157.7600 
163.2000 

168.6400 
174.0800 
179.5200 
184.9600 
190.4000 

195.8400 
217.6000 
239.36C0 
261.1200 
293.7600 

326.4000 
;,9i.68co 



142 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE W OKKEPw. 



Table Continued. 

Diameter in 1 } j I 

Inches. J • • • ; 44 48 ^ 54 ' 60 

Depth. ' 

I inch I 6.5824 7-8336 9-9M4 12.2400 

2 i 13.1648 15.6672 i 19.8288 24.4800 

3 19-7472 23.5008 29.7432 36.7200 

4 126.3296 31-3344 39-6576 48.9600 

5 32.9120 39.1680 j 49.5720 ; 61.2000 

6 39-4944 47-ooi6 ; 59.4864 73-440o 

7. i 46.0768 54.8352; 69.4008 85.6800 

8 52.6592 I 62.6688 I 79.3152 97.9200 

9 59.2416 j 70.5024 I 89.2296 1 10.1600 

10 65 8240 ■ 78-33601 99.1440 122.4000 

II 72.4064 86.1696 1109.0580 134.6400 

12 78.9888 94-0032 ;Il8. 9730 ,146.8800 

13 85.5712 101.8370 128.8870 159.1200 

14...., 92.1536 109-6700 138.8020 171.3600 

15 98 7360 117.5040 1148. 7160 ,183.6000 

16 105.3180 125.3380 158.6300 '195.8400 

17 III. 9010 133. 1 jio 168.5450 208.0800 

18 118.4830 1 141.0050 178.4590 220.3200 

19 125.0660 148.8380 188.3740 232.5600 

20. 131.6480 5156.6720 j 198.2880 244.8000 

21 138.2303 164.5060 208.2020 257.0400 

22 144.8130 172.3390 218. 1 170 269.2800 

23 151-3950 180.1730 228.0310 281.5200 

24 1 157.9780 j 188.0060 237.9460 293.7600 

25 164.5600 195.8400 247.8600 306.0000 

26 I171.1420 203.6740 257.7740 '318.2400 

27 . . .177.7250 211.5070 267.6890 330.4S00 

28 184.3070 219.3410 277.6030 342.7200 

29 190.8900 227.1740 287.5180 354.9600 

30 197.4720 235.0080 297.4320 367.2000 

31 '204.0540 '242.8420 I307.3460 379.4400 

32 210.6370 250.6750 I317.2610 391.68C0 

Zl 217.2190 258.5090 J327.1750 403.9200 

34 223.8020 266.3420 337.0900 1416.1600 

35 230.3840 274.1760 347.0040 |428.4ooo 

36 236.9660 282.0100 356.9180 440.6400 

40 263 2960 '313.3440 396.5760 489.6000 

44. 289.6260 344.6780 436.2340 538.5600 

48 .... 315 9550 376 0130 475.8910 ,587.5200 

54 - 355 4500 J423.0140 535.3780 660.9600 

60 394 9440 470 0160 594.8640 734.4000 

72 ,4739330,564.0190 713.8370 881.2100 



72 



17.6256 
35-2512 
52.8768 
70.5024 
88.1280 

105.7540 
1233790 
141.0050 
158.6300 
176.2560 

193.8820 
211.5070 
229.13:0 
246.7580 
264.3840 

282.0100 
299.6350 
317.2610 
334 8860 
352-5120 

370.1380 
387-7630 
405.3890 
423.0140 
440.6400 

458.2660 
475.8910 
493 5170 
511. 1420 
528.7680 

546.3940 
564.0190 
581.6450 
599.2710 
616.8960 

634.5220 

705.0240 
775-5260 
846.0290 
951.7820 

1057.5400 
1269.0400 



CAPACITY OF CYLINDERS. 143 

The Decimal equivalents of the Fractional parts of a 
Gallon. 

0.03125 of a gallon , equals I gill. 

0.06250 of a gallon. equals yi pint. 

0.09375 of a gallon . equals 3 gills. 

0.125CO of a gallon equals I pint. 

0.15625 of a gallon equals 5 gills. 

0.18750 of a gallon , .equals l^ pint. 

0.21875 of a gallon equals 7 gills. 

0.25000 of a gallon equals I quart. 

0.28125 of a gallon equals 9 gills. 

0.31250 of a gallon equals 2j^ pints. 

0.34375 of a gallon equals 1 1 gills. 

0.37500 of a gallon , equals 3 pints. 

0.40625 of a gallon , equals 1 3 gilU. 

0.43750 of a gallon equals 3 j^ pints. 

0.46875 of a gallon . , equals 1 5 gills. 

0.50000 of a gallon , .equals ^ gallon. 

0.53125 of a gallon .equals 17 gills. 

0.56250 of a gallon , equals 4^ pints. 

0.59375 of a gallon equals 19 gills. 

0.62500 of a gallon equals 5 pints. 

0.65625 of a gallon , equals 21 gills. 

0.68750 of a gallon equals 5^ pints. 

0.71875 of a gallon , equals 23 gills. 

0.75000 of a gallon equals 3 quarts. 

0.78125 of a gallon equals 25 gills. 

0.81250 of a gallon . , equals dyi pints. 

0.84375 of a gallon equals 27 gills. 

0.87500 of a gallon equals 7 pints. 

0.90625 of c\ gallon equals 29 gills ( 

0.93750 of a gallon equals 7^ pints. 

0.96875 of a gallon . . . equals 31 gills. 

1. 000 of a gallon equals I gallon. 

Explanation of the Tables. — A very few words are needed 
to explain the tables given above, and perhaps the simplest 
method of doing so is to apply it to a practical case. Sup- 
l^ose, for instance, it is desired to find the dimensions of 



144 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

a cylinder holding 27 gallons. Running down the column 
headed 19, we find the number 27.0028 and following the 
line across we come to the number 22; hence a cylinder 
19 inches in diameter and 22 inches deep will hold 
27 gallons and .00 2 8 gallon. Turning to the supple- 
mentary table we find a gill is equal to .03125 gallon ; so 
the capacity of the cylinder in question is about j\ gill 
more than 27 gallons. 

Again, if it is desired to find the depth of a 15-inch 
cvlinder that sh?ll hold 27 gallons, we run down the 
column headed 15 till we come to the number 27.54, and 
following the line across we find the depth to be t,6 inches. 
The decimal .54 we find, on consulting the supplementary 
table, is equivalent to between i and 2 pints, therefore a 15 
inch cylinder 36 inches deep will hold between i and 2 
pints more than 27 gallons. Similarly, to find the diam- 
eter of a cylinder 15 inches deep that shall hold 27 gal- 
lons, we run across the line opposite 15 till we come to the 
number 26.976 under the column headed 23. The deci- 
mal part according to the small table is equivalent to 
between 31 gills and i gallon, so the capacity of a cylinder 
15 inches deep and 23 inches in diameter is about ^4 giU 
less than 27 gallons. Where it is desired to find the capac- 
ity of a cylinder, both dimensions af which are given, it 
is only necessary to run down the column headed with the 
diameter till we come to the line across from the given 
de])th, where the number found will be the capacity of the 
cylinder in gallons. To illustrate : What is the capacity 
of a cylinder 29 inches deep and 32 inches in diameter? 
Consulting the table in the manner described, we find the 
number 100.966, the decimal part of which according to 
the second table is about 31 gills, or 3 quarts, i pint, 3 
gills ; the given cylinder, therefore, holding 100 gallons. 
3 quarts, i pint. 3 gills. These examples, we think, fully 
illustrate the uses of the table, anvi serve to show its wide 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 146 

application to the determination of the capacities and di- 
mensions of cylindrical vessels. (The Metal Worker.) 

SPECIFIC GRAVI JT. 

The specific gravity of a body is the ratio of its weight 
to an equal volume of some other body assumed as a con- 
ventional standard. The standard usually adopted for 
solids and liquids is rain or distilled water at a common 
temperature. In bodies of equal magnitudes the specific 
gravities are directly as the weights or as iheir densities. 
In bodies of the same specific gravity the weights will be 
as the magnitudes. In bodies of equal weights the spe- 
cific gravities are inversely as the magnitudes. The weights 
of different bodies are to each other in the compound ratio 
of their magnitudes and specific gravities. Hence, it is 
obvious that speaking of the magnitude, weight and specific 
gravity of a body, if any two of them are given, the third 
may be found. A body immersed in a fluid will sink if its 
specific gravity be greater than that of the fluid; if it be 
less, the body will rise to the top, and be only partly im- 
mersed; and if the specific gravity of the body and fluid 
be equal, it will remain at rest in any part of the fluid in 
which it may be placed. When a body is heavier than a 
fluid it loses as much of its weight when immersed as is 
equal to a quantity of the fluid of the same bulk or mag- 
nitude. If the specific gravity of the fluid be greater than 
that of the body, then the quantity of fluid displaced by 
the part immersed is equal to the weight of the whole body. 
And hence, as the specific gravity of the fluid is to that of 
the body, so is the whole magnitude of the body to the 
part immersed. The specific gravities of equal solids are 
as their parts immersed in the same fluid. 

A knowledge of the specific gravities of bodies of tech- 
nical and economic importance is of interest in so far 
as it, 

10 



146 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



1. Furnishes a means of finding the absolute weight of 
bodies whose vohimes are known. 

2. In that it permits tlie approximate quantitative pro- 
portions of the constituents of a mixture; and 

3. As it serves as a sign of genuineness. 

Hence, in the ful lowing table, the specific gravities 
of 119 bodies, used for technical and scientific purposes, are 
given. 

Table shoiuing the Specific Grarifics of Technically Important 
Bodies. 



\.— Metals. 

Aluminium 

Antimony , 

Ben-metal(78copper,22 lin 

Brass 

Brass wire 

Copper, cast 

Copper, hammered 

German silver 

Gold, cast 

Gold, hammered 

Gun-metal 

Iron, cast 

Iron, wrought 

Lead 

Mercury 

Nickel 

Platinum., hammered , 

Steel, cast 

Steel, hammered 

Steel, hardened in water.. . 

Steel, soft 

Silver, cast 

Silver, hammered 

Tin (English), cast 

Tin (English), hammered. . 

Zinc, cast , . . . 

Zinc, rolled 



2.67 
672 
8.82 
8.40 

^•54 
8.76 
8.88 
8.6 

19-5 
19.6 

8.79 

7-25 

7-79 

"•35 

13.6 

8.28 

21.25 

7.92 

7.84 

7.82 

7.63 
10.47 
10.62 
7-30 
7.48 
6.86 
7.04 



II. — Stones and Varieties of 
EartJis. 



Alalmster, 
Asbestus . 



2.63 
2.6 



Asphalt 

Basalt 

Brick 

Chalk 

Clay 

Clav, potters' 

Coal 

Earth, clayey, dry 

Earth, clayey, fresh. 

Feldspar 

Glass, bottle 

Glass, window., 

Granite 

Gypsum, burnt . 

Gypsum, cast and dried . . . 

Gypsum, crude 

Lignite 

Lime mortar, dry 

Lime mortar, fresh 

Limestone 

Marble (Carrara) 

Masonry of bricks, dry. . . . 
Masonry of quarrystone, dry 

Porcelain (Berlin) 

Porcelain (China) 

Porcelain (Meissen). . ..... 

Porcelain (Sevres) 

Pumice stone 

Quarrystone 

Quarrystone, soft 

Quartz 

Sand, dry 

Sandstone 

Slate 



1.66 
2.79 
1-53 
2-45 
1.66 
2.20 

I 53 

1.9 

2.1 

2.28 
2.76 
2.64 
2.70 
1.80 
0.97 
2.20 
1.25 
1.64 
1.79 
2.46 
2.72 

1-53 
2.40 
2.30 

2-39 
2.49 
2.15 
0.92 
2.46 
1.98 
2.65 
1.64 

2-35 
2.76 



HEAT. 



147 



111.— Woods. 

Alder, 0.68 

Ash, from the trunk 0.85 

Basswood 0.60 

Beech 0.85 

Boxwood (Dutch) 1.03 

Boxwood (French) 0.91 

Cedar (American) 0.56 

Cedar (Indian) 1. 32 

Cherry, dry 0.74 

Cork 0.24 

Ebony (Antilles) 1.35 

Ebony (Madagascar) 1. 21 

Ebony (Mexican) 0.80 

Fir, from the heart, dry 0.62 

Fir, from the trunk, green. . 0.72 

Hickory 0.68 

Lignum vitae 1.26 

Mahogany (African) 0.95 

Mahogany (Cuba) 0.56 

Mahogany (Domingo). . . . '. 0.79 

Maple 0.75 

Oak, from the heart, green.. 1. 17 

Oak, from the trunk, dry.. . 0.72 

Oak, from the trunk, green., 0.84 

Oak, sap-wood, dry 0.61 

Pear , , , . 0.66 

Pine, pitch 0.47 

Pine, white 0.55 

Poplar 0.38 

Willow... 0.58 



IV.— Seeds. 

Barley 0.65 

Beans 0.76 

Buckwheat 0.64 

Clover 0.80 

Flaxseed 0.70 

Hempseed o 53 

Indian corn 0.76 

Lentils o 77 

Millet.. . 0,75 

Oats 0.45 

Peas , . 0.77 

Poppy 062 

Rape 0.68 

Rye 0.70 

Vetches 0.84 

Wheat 0.75 

Y,—F/mds. 

Beer I 023 to 1.034 

Hydrochloric acid, at 59°F. 1. 192 

Linseed oil 0.94 

Milk .... 1.02 to 1.04 

Nitric acid, at 53.5° F,. ... 1.522 

Rapeseed oil 0.92 

Sulphuric acid, anhydrous, 

at 68° F 1.970 

Wnter 1. 00 

Wine (Rhine) 0.992 to 1.002 



HEAT. 

One of the remarkable effects of the application of heat 
to matter is, that the same amount will affect equal weights 
of dissimilar kinds in different degrees. Tlius the amount 
of heat that will raise i pound of water from 100° F. to 
200° F. , will raise 30 pomids of mercury through the saiiie 
range. The amount that will raise i pound of water 1°, 
will raise 14 pounds of air 1° F. 

The capacity of a body for heat is termed its specific heat, 
and may be defined as the number of units of heat neces- 
sary to raise the temperattire of i pound of that body 1° F. 

The thermal unit^ or unit of heat, is the quantity of heat 



148 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER, 

that will raise i pound of pure water i° ¥., or from 39*^ to 
40° F. 

Latent heat is the quantity of heat which has disappeared 
from a body owing to an increase of temperature. The 
sensible heat is that which is sensible to the touch or meas- 
urable by the thermometer. 



Latent Heat of Various Substances. 



Alcohol . . 
Ammonia 
Beeswax.., 

Ether 

Ice 



Deg. Fahr. 

442 

860 

176 

301 

140 



Dec 



Lead . . . 
Sulphur 
Steam. . 
Vinegar 
Zinc. . . 



Fahr. 
. 162 

• 144 

• 990 
. S75 

• 493 



Specific ILeat of Different Substances. 



Solids. 

Copper 0.095 ^ 

Gold 0.0324 

Iron 0.1 1 38 

Lead ... .0.0314 

Platinum 0-0324 

Silver 0.0570 

Tin 0.0562 

Zinc 0.0955 

Brass 0.0939 

Glass .0.1977 

Ice 0.5040 

Sulphur o. 2020 

Charcoal 0,2410 



Alumina 0.1970 

Stones, bricks, etc., about. 0.2200 

Liquids. 

Water i .0000 

Lead, melted 0.0402 

Sulphur, melted 0.234c 

Bismuth, melted .0.0363 

Tin, melted 0.0637 



Mercury 0.0332 

Alcohol 0.6150 

Fusel oil 0.5640 

Benzine 0.4500 

Ether 0.5034 



Fusing Points of the Principal Metals and other FJenients 

e7nployed in Alloys. 

Deg. Fahr. 
1292 



Aluminium , .... 

Antimony 797 

Arsenic. . . . . = 773 

Bismuth 504 

Cachnium 608 

Cooper 1922 

Gold 22S2 



Deg. Fahr. 

Lead 626 

Mercury 40 

Nickel 2732 to 2912 

Pho.sphoriis 1 1 1 

Plntinum 4712 

Silver 1832 

Sulphur 239 



Iron, cast 1922 to 2192 1 Tellurium 716 

Iron, steel 2372 to 2552 1 Tin 455 

Iron, wrought. .... .2732 to 2912 J Zinc 773 



HEAT. 149 

Relative Internal Heat- Conducting Power of Bodies. 



Substance. 


Relative 

Conducting 

Power. 


1 

Substance. 


Relative 

Conducting 
Power. 


Gold . 


lOOO 

981 

973 
892 

749 

562 

374 


jZinc 


363 

304 

180 

24 

12 


Platinum 


iTin 


Silver 

Conner , 


iLead 

iMarble 

Porcelain 

Terra-cotta 


Brass 


Cast iron 


II 


Wrought iron 







Table of Effects of Heat upon Bodies. 

Cast iron thoroughly melts at 2754° Fahrenheit. 

Fine gold melts at.. . 1983° 

Fine silver melts at 1850° 

Copper melts at 21 60° 

Brass melts at 1900° 

Zinc melts at , 740° 

Lead melts at 594° 

Bismuth melts at 47^° 

Tin melts at 421° 

Tin and bismuth (equal parts) melt at 283° 

Tin 3 parts, bismuth 5, and lead 2, melt at 212° 

Mercury boils at 630° 

Linseed oil boils at 600° 

Alcohol boils at 174° 

Ether boils at 98° 

Mercury melts at ^ 39° 

Expansion of Metals by Heat. 
In raising the temperature of bars of various metals from 
32° Fabr. to 212° Fabr., tliey are found to expand nearly 
as follows : 



Parts. 

Platinum .. , 1 in 1097 

Palladium. " 1000 

Antimony. " 923 

Cast iron.. . . , . " 901 

Steel " 824 

Wrought iron " 801 

Bismuth " 718 

Gold " 667 



Copper I 

Gunmetal (copper8,tin i ) ' 

F)rass ' 

vSpeculum metal ' 

Silver ' 

Tin ' 

Lead ' 

Zinc ' 



Parts. 

i'^ 557 
550 
524 
5'7 
499 
424 

350 



150 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WOKKEPv. 



Comparative Radiating or Absorbent and Reflecting Potvers 
of Substances. 



Power. 



Substance. 



Radiating or 
Absorbing. 



Lamp black 

\Vater 

Carbonate of lead, 
Wriiing paper. . . . 
Ivory, jet, marble.. 

Isinglass 

Ordinary glass. . . 

China ink 

Ice 



Ginii lac 

Silver leaf on glass 

Ca.st iron, brightly polished... . 

Mercury, about 

Wrought iron, polished 

Zinc, polished 

Steel, polished 

Platinum, a little polished 

Platinum, deposited on copper, 

Platinum, in sheet 

Tin 



Brass, ca.st, dead polished 

Brass, hammered, dead polished.. , 

Brass, cast, bright polished 

Brass, hammered, bright polished . , 

Copper, varnished. 

Copper, deposited on iron 

Copper, hammered or cast 

Gold, plated 

Gold, deposited on polished steel. . 
Silver, hammered, polished bright. 
Silver, cast, polished bright.. ...... 



TOO 

loo 

lOO 

98 
93 to ' 
91 
90 

85 
85 
72 
27 
25 
23 
23 
19 
17 
24 

17 
17 
15 
II 

9 
7 
7 

14 
7 
7 
5 
3 
3 
3 



Reflecting. 



O 
O 

o 

2 
to : 

9 
10 

15 
15 

28 

73 
75 
77 
8r 
81 
83 
76 
83 
^1. 
85 
89 
91 
93 
93 
86 

93 
93 
95 
97 
97 



TEMPERING. 

The article, after being completed, is liardened by being 
heated gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into 
cold water ; it is then tempered by berng warmed grad- 
ually and equably, either over a fire or on a piece of heated 



TEMPERING. 151 

metal, till of the color corresponding to the purpose for 
which it is required, as per table below, when it is again 
plunged into water. 

Corresponding Colors and Temperatures. 

A very pale straw - - 430° Lancets ^ 

Straw ------ 450° Razors / 

Darker straw - - - - 470° Penknives | All kinds of wood tools, 

Yellow 490° Scissors / screw taps. 

Brown yellow - - - - 500° ] Hatchets, chipping chisels. 

Slightly tinged purple - 520° y saws. 

Purple ------ 530° ) All kinds of percussive tools. 

Dark purple - - . - 550° ) e • 

Bliie ...... 570° Pl^^^"SS. 

Dark blue 600° Soft for saws. 

To Tempe?- by the TJicrnioineter. — Put the articles to be 
tempered into a vessel containing a sufficient quantity to 
cover them of oil or tallow, sand, or a mixture of 8 parts 
bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin ; the whole to be brought 
up to, and kept up at, the heat corresponding to the hard- 
ness required, by means of a suitable thermometer, till 
heated equally throughout. The articles are then withdrawn 
and plunged into cold water. 

If no thermometer is available, it may be observed that 
oil or tallow begins to smoke at 430°, or straw color, and 
that it takes fire on a light being presented, and goes out 
when the light is withdrawn, at 570°, or blue. 

To Teinpe)' Brass or to Draw its Temper. — Brass is ren- 
dered hard by hammering or rolling ; therefore, when you 
make a thing of brass necessary to be in temper, you must 
prepare the material before shaping the article. Temper 
may be drawn from brass by heating it to a cherry red, and 
then simply plunging it into water, the same as though you 
were going to temper steel. 

To Temper Drills.— ^t\^Q.\. none but the finest and best 
steel for your drills. In making them never heat higher 
than a cherry red, and always hammer till nearly cold. 



152 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Do all your hammering in one way, for if, after } uu have 
flattened your piece out, you attempt to hammer it back 
to a square or a round, you spoil it. When your drill is in 
proper shape heat it to a cherry red and thrust it into a 
piece of resin, or into quicksilver. 

Some use a solution of potassium cyanide and rain water 
for tempering their drills; but for my part I have always 
found the resin or quicksilver to work best. 

To Te??iper Gravers. — Gravers and other instruments 
larger than drills may be tempered in quicksilver, as above ; 
or, you may use lead instead of quicksilver. Cut down 
into the lead, say half an inch ; then, having heated your 
instrument to a light cherry heat, press it firmly into the 
cut. The lead will melt around it, and an excellent temper 
will be imparted. It is said that the engravers and watch- 
makers of Germany harden their tools in sealing wax. The 
tool is heated to whiteness and plunged into the wax, with- 
drawn after an instant and plunged in again — the process 
being repeated until the steel is too cold to enter the wax. 
The steel is said to become, after this process, almost as 
hard as the diamond, and when touched with a little oil of 
turpentine, the tools are excellent for engraving and for 
piercing the hardest metals. 

Mixtures for Tempering. — By melting together about 
I gallon of spermaceti oil^ 2 pounds of tallow and j^ 
pound of wax, a mixture is obtained very convenient for 
tempering any kind of steel articles of small size. Adding 
I pound of resin it is used for the tempering of larger arti- 
cles. The addition of resin must be made with care, for 
an excess of this material renders the steel too hard and 
brittle. After several months' use the mass loses its energy ; 
it must then be wholly renewed, taking care to thoroughly 
cleanse the bottom of the vessel which contained it. 

Another mixture, the efficiency of which has likewise 



WATER. 153 

been proved in practice, consists of 20 gallons of sper- 
maceti oil, 20 pounds of tallow, 10 gallons neatsfoot oil, i 
pound of pitch and 3 pounds of resin. The pitch and 
resin are melted together, then the three other materials 
are successively added, and the whole is heated in an iron 
])ot till all the water is evaporated. This is ascertained 
when the mass takes fire at the approach of a burning chip 
of wood ; the flame is immediately put out by hermetically 
shutting the pot with a cover. The tempering is in both 
cases effected as follows : Saw-blades, for instance, are 
heated in special ovens, and when they have reached the 
required temperature, are dipped in the mass contained in 
tubs arranged side by side. For a continuous manufacture 
a certain number of tubs are used, so as to allow the mass 
time for cooling during the progress of the operation. As 
soon as the blade is cooled, it is withdrawn from the bath 
and cleaned with a piece of leather, so that there remains 
still on it a thin layer of grease. It is then passed over a 
coke fire till the grease catches fire and burns with a clear 
smoke. In this way the blade acquires elasticity. If it 
is desired very hard, a part only of the grease is allowed 
to be burned ; the more softness is desired, the more the 
burning is completed. For springs, the flame is left to 
burn itself out. If the objects are of various forms and 
sizes, the burning is repeated on the several parts till all 
are deemed equally tempered. The blades are finished by 
hammering and heating them again on a clear coke fire 
till they return to a straw-yellow hue. The coloration is 
then taken away by washing in dilute hydrochloric acid, 
and afterwards in plenty of water. 

WATER. 

Pure water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in the 
proportion of 2 measures of hydrogen to i of oxygen, or 
I part of hydrogen to 8 of oxygen j or oxygen, 89 parts 



154 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE AVORKER. 

by weight, and by measure i part ; hydrogen by weiglit. 
1 1 parts, and by measure 2 parts. But pure water is not 
attainable, nor is it to be found in the laboratory of the 
chemist. 

With the barometer at 30° water boils in the open air, 
at sea-level at 212° Fahr., and in vacuum at 88° F. The 
less the pressure of the atmosphere, the lower is the tem- 
perature at which water will boil. The pressure of the 
atmosphere at sea-level is 14.7 pounds per square inch, 
pressing equally and in all directions. A cubic foot of 
water evaporated under a pressure of one atmosphere, or 
15 pounds per square inch, occupies a space of 1,700 cubic 
feet. 

Salt water boils at a higher temperature than fresh, owing 
to its greater density, and because the boiling-point of 
water is increased by any substance that enters into chem- 
ical combination with it. Mud and other substances, so 
long as they are kept in mechanical solution, will not in- 
crease the boiling-point of water ; when these substances 
settle, and burn to the interior of the boilers, the boiling- 
point will be increased. The density of water decreases 
as the temperature increases, since heat destroys cohesion 
and expands the particles, causing them to occupy greater 
space. The power of water to hold chemical substances, 
such as salts of lime, in solution, decreases as the tempera- 
ture increases. 

The law of expansion by heat and contraction by cold is 
true as relating to water, with this exception, that as hot 
water cools down from the boiling-point it contracts until 
45° F. is reached ; but if cooled down from this point, it 
expands again. 

When a substance solidifies or freezes, there is always a 
change of volume, which usually is contraction ; but, in 
the case of water, an expansion takes place. The expan- 
sion of water at the freezing-point i-? by no means gradual. 



WEIGHT OF WATER. 155 

but taices place almost instantaneously, and the amount of 
force exerted at tlie time is enormous. It has been demon- 
strated by actual experiments, that in freezing, water exerts 
a pressure of about 30,000 pounds per square inch. 

The specific gravity of all waters is not the same. Sea 
water varies from 1.0269 to 1.0285 — the mean being 1.0277, 
thus requiring 34.9741 cubic feet of sea water to make one 
ton, and about 35 cubic feet of fresh water. Water is 
heavier at night than during the day, owing to the atmos- 
phere being more dense and the additional weight of the 
dew. 

Weight of Water, 

I Cubic inch equal to. ... : -03617 pounds. 

12 Cubic inches equal to .434 pounds. 

I Cubic foot ...equal to 62.5 pounds. 

I Cubic foot equal to 7.50 (J. S. gallons. 

1.8 Cubic foot equal to 1 12.00 pounds. 

35.84 Cubic feet equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

I Cylindrical inch equal to .02842 pounds. 

12 Cylindrical inches . . . .equal to .341 pounds. 

I Cylindrical foot equal to 49-10 pounds. 

I Cylindrical foot equal to. ... 6 00 U. S. gallons. 

2.282 Cylindrical feet equal to. ... 1 12.00 pounds. 

45.64 Cylindrical feet. ..... .equal to. . . 224000 pounds. 

1 1.2 Imperial gallons equal to 1 12.00 pounds. 

224 Imperial gallons equal to 2240 00 pounds. 

13.44 United States gallons . .equal to 1 12.00 pounds. 

268. S United States gallons, .equal to 2240.00 pounds. 

Centre of pressure is at two-thirds depth from surface. 

Water has the greatest specific heat of all known liquids 
except hydrogen, and is therefore taken as the standard for 
all solids and fluids. The latent heat of water is 143° F., 
and that of ice 140°, as it absorbs that amount of heat in 
changing from a liquid to a solid state. 

When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire 
It readily imbibes the heat, or fluid principle of which the 



loti TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

fire is the immediate cause, and sooner or later, according 
to the intensity of the heat, attains a temperature of 212° F. 
If, at this point of temperature, the water be not inclosed, 
but exposed to atmospheric pressure, ebullition will take 
place, and steam or vapor will ascend through the water, 
carrying with it the superabundant heat, or that which the 
water cannot, under such circumstances Of pressure, ab- 
sorb, to be retained, and to indicate a higher temperature. 
Water, in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uniformly 
confined to the same laws, under every degree of pressure ; 
but, as the pressure is augmented, so is the indicated tem- 
perature proportionately elevated. Hence the various den- 
sities of steam, and corresponding degrees of elastic force. 

Effects Produced by Water i?i its Natural State. 

Because of liquids possessing the properties of gravity 
and capability of flowing freely in every direction, sides of 
vessels, flood-gates, sluices, etc., sustain a pressure equal to 
the product of the area multiplied by half the depth of the 
fluid, and by its gravity in equal terms of unity. 

But when a sluice or opening through which a liquid may 
issue is under any given continued head, the i)ressure is 
equal to the product of the area multipled into the height 
from the centre of the opening to the surface of the fluid. 

Example i. — Required the pressure of water on tlie sides 
of a cistern 18 feet in length, 13 in width, and 9 in depth. 

The terms of measurement or unity are in feet ; i cubic 
foot of water =62.5 lbs. ; hence, 

18 X 9 X 2 -f 13 X 9 X 2 — 558 X 4-5 X 62.5 = 
156937.5 lbs. ; weight of water on bottom = 18 X 
13 X 9 X 62.5 = 131625 lbs. 

Example 2. — Required the pressure on a sluice 3 feet 
square, and its centre 30 feet from the surface of the water. 
3 X 3 X 30 X 62.5 = 16875 ^bs- pressure. 



AIR. 157 

AIR. 

Effects Produced by Air in its Natural, and also in its 
Rarefied State. — The mean pressure of the atmosphere at 
the level of the sea is equal to 14.7 lbs. per square inch, 
or 21 16. 4 lbs. per square foot. This is called one atmos- 
phere of pressure. The following are measures of pressures : 

One atmosphere of pressure : i. A column of air at 32° F., 
27,801 feet, or about 5^ miles high, of uniform density 
equal to that of air at the level of the sea. 2. A column 
of mercury at 32° F., 29.922 inches or 76 centimetres 
high ; nearly 30 inches. At 62° F. the height is 30 inches. 
3. A column of water at 62° F., 33.947 feet high; nearly 
34 feet. 

A pressure of i lb. per square inch : i. A column of air 
at 32° F., 1891 feet high, of uniform pressure as above. 2, 
A column of mercury at 32° F., 2.035 inches high. At 
62° F. the height is 2.04 inches. 3. A column of water at 
62° F., 0.1925 inch high. 

The density or weight of one cubic foot of pure air, un- 
der a pressure of one atmosphere, or 14.7 lbs. per square 
inch, is, 

At 32° F. == 0.080728 lb., or 1.29 oz., or 565.1 grains. 
At 62° F. = 0.076097 '^ 1. 217 '' 532-7 '' 

The weight of a litre of pure air, under one atmosphere, 
at 32° F., is 19.955 grains. 

The weight of air, compared with that of water at three 
notable temperatures, and at 52.3°, under one atmosphere, 
is as follows : 

Weight of water at }^2° F., 773.2 times the weight of air at 32° F. 

u u << 3g jo p^ yy^27 " " " " 32° F. 

i( <' " 62° F., 772.4 " " " " 32° F. 

" " " 62° F., 819.4 " " " « 62° F. 

" " " 52.3° F., 820 " " « " 62° F, 

The volume of i lb, of air a"t 32° F., and under one 



158 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



atmospheric pressure, is 12.387 cubic feet. The volume at 
62° F. is 13. 141 cubic feet. 

The specific heat of air, at constant pressure, is 0.237'^ ; 
and at constant volume, 0.1688, that of water being = i. 

Air, like all other gases, is rendered lighter by the appli- 
cation of heat, for then the particles of the mass are re- 
})elled from each other, or rarefied, and occupy a greater 
space. Rarefied air, being specifically lightest, mounts 
above that of common density ; hence change of temper- 
ature, and the principal cause of winds. 

Table of the Expansion of Atmospheric Air by Heat. 



Degrees of 
Fahrenheit. 


Bulk. 


Degrees of 
Fahrenheit. 


Bulk. ' 
1077 


Degrees of 
Fahrenheit. 


Bulk. 


32° 


1000 


65° 


100° 


1152 


35° 


1007 


i 70° 


IC89 


120° 


11Q4 


40° 


1021 


, 75° 


1099 


140° 


1235 


45° 


1032 


i 80° 


I no 


160° 


1275 


50° 


1043 


I 85° 


II2I 


180° 


1315 


55° 


1055 


90° 


II32 


200° 


1364 


60° 


1066 


95° 


I 142 


212'' 

1 


1376 



The pressure or gravity of the atmosphere, being equal 
to a column of water 34 feet in height, is the means or 
principle on which rests the utility of the common pump, 
also of the siphon and all other such hydraulic applica- 
tions. In a pump, the internal pressure on the surface of 
the liquid is removed by the action of the bucket ; and as 
by degrees the density becomes lessened, so the water rises 
by the external pressure to the above-named height ; and 
at such height it will remain, unless, by some derangement 
of construction taking place, the atmospheric fluid is 
allowed to enter and displace the liquid column. But ob- 
serve, if the temperature of the water or other liquid be so 
elevated tliat steam or vapor arise through it, the», accord- 



MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 159 

ing to the vapor's accumulation of density, may the action 
of the pump be partially or wholly destroyed ; and the 
only means of evasion in such cases is, to place the work- 
ing bucket beneath the surface of the liquid which is re- 
quired to be raised. 

MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 

The first step in the manufacture is to cleanse the surface 
of the sheet-iron from oxide, dust and grease. This is 
effected by dipping the sheets in a pickle of dilute sulphuric 
acid (i acid to i6 to 20 water). The pickle is prepared by 
pouring the acid in a thin stream into the water, keeping 
the latter constantly agitated. The sheets remain in the 
pickle until all the oxide is dissolved and the surface shows 
a dead-gray color. Pickling is frequently succeeded by 
scouring with fine, hard sand and water, the numerous 
scratches produced thereby upon the surface of the sheets 
promoting the adhesion of the coating of tip to be applied 
later on. 

In order to obtain sheets of sufiicient^oftness, they have 
to be annealed ; but to prevent them from becoming again 
coated with a layer of oxide when exposed to a red heat, 
the air has to be excluded during the annealing process. 
For this purpose the plates are placed, to the number of 
about 1,800 — for common sizes — in piles, within a cast- 
iron box about 2 feet square, the lid carefully luted on to 
prevent air entering, and then placed with several similarly 
filled boxes in a stove constructed very much in the shape 
of a reverberatory furnace, but considerably larger and 
having its bed on a level with the ground. The fire-bridge 
being tolerably high, the flame from the grate rolls slowly 
over the boxes and raises them gradually to a cherry-red 
heat, at which temperature they are maintained during 12 
hours, and then withdrawn. When quite cold the covers 
are taken 6ff, the plates taken out, carefully examined, and 



160 TIX. SHEET-IBOy A^D COPPER-PLATE WOEKEE. 

sorted. If the heat has been too high, some of the plates 
will be found adhering to one another ; if too mild,, they 
will not be much improved by the operation ; and if air 
should have entered, they will be either partially or com- 
pletely converted into scale or oxide of iron. After being 
subjected to this process the plates have a deep, plum-color 
bloom on their surfaces, due to a very thin film or coating 
of oxide that has formed upon them. They are now passed 
three times through a pair of rolls placed in close proximity 
so that the plates passing between them are subjected to 
great pressure, bu: no: sufficient to enlarge them. After 
having been thus cold-rolled, as it is termed, the plates are 
extremely smooth and possessed of a lustrous and dappled 
appearance, still owing to the thin oxidation. One effect 
of this rolling is to make the plates brittle once more, and 
therefore to necessitate a second annealing, which is per- 
formed in tiie same way as the preceding : but the heat is 
milder and the time reduced to 5 or 6 hours. Another 
sorting follows, when the good plates are sent to the tin 
house. In the tin house the plates are again pickled in a 
warm but more dilute bath of sulphuric acid than that 
already used, during ten minutes: then removed and well 
rubbed with sand and water, to remove all dirt and scale. 
They should now have a smooth, perfectly clean, grayish 
metallic surface, in which state they can be kept for some 
time in cold water without injury, and are ready for ////- 
ning. 

The apparatus for this process consists of a series of 
baths, set side by side, for the convenience of the work- 
men, each bath ha\-ing a fire beneath it, to keep the mate- 
rials they contain in a fluid state. These baths or pots are 
six in number, namely: i, the tinman's pot: 2, the tin 
pot : 3, the washing or dipping pot ; 4. the grease pot : 5. 
the cold i)Ot, and 6, the list pot. The tinman's ix)t is full 
of melted grease, and in this the plates are immersed and 



MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 161 

left till all the moisture upon them is evaporated and they 
become completely covered with the grease. From the 
tinman's pot the plates are removed to the tin pot and 
plunged into the bath of melted tin, protected with a layer 
of grease, which it contains, and remain in it for about 20 
minutes. In the first dipping the alloy is imperfect, and 
the surface not uniformly coated ; consequently, the plates 
are removed to the dipping and washing pot, which is 
divided into two compartments. The first immersion takes 
place in the larger division, which contains melted tin cov- 
ered with grease, like the last, and here the plate is left 
sufficiently long to make the alloy complete, and to sepa- 
rate any superfluous tin which might have adhered to the 
surface. The workman then takes out each plate sepa- 
rately to a table between the wash pot and the grease pot. 
and wipes it on each side with a brush of hemp to remove 
any excess of tin ; to obliterate the marks of the brush, he 
quickly dips the plate into the second compartment of the 
wash pot, and then at once into the grease pot. This sec- 
ond compartment of the wash pot always contains the 
purest tin ; and as it becomes alloyed with iron, it is re- 
moved to the first compartment of the same, and thence to 
the tin pot. The grease pot is filled with melted grease, 
and great care is necessary to maintain it at the proper tem- 
perature. Its purposes are to allow any superfluous tin to 
run off, and especially to prevent the alloy on the surface 
of the plate cooling more rapidly than the iron. If this 
were neglected its surface would be cracked. After 10 
minutes' immersion in the grease pot, the plate is removed 
to the cold pot, which is filled with tallow heated to a com- 
paratively low temperature. The pots 4 and 5 serve the 
purpose of annealing the plates, and of cooling them down 
to a low temperature. The last one in the series is the list 
pot, and is a small cast-iron bath kept at a sufficiently high 
temperature^ its bottom covered with tm to the depth of a 
U 



162 TIN, SHEET-IEOX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER.' 

quarter of an inch. In this the edges of the plates are 
dipped, and left in it till the wire of tin, which usually 
forms on them in the course of the foregoing processes, melts, 
and is removed by a quick blow on the plate with a stick. 

The articles are now tin plates ; but before they are sent 
to market, they undergo some further treatment. They 
are first carefully rubbed with bran to clean them from 
grease and dirt ; they then receive another rubbing with a 
pad of sheep-skin, retaining its wool, and finally they are 
sent to the sorter whose duty it is to pick out defective 
plates and to arrange the good ones in piles according to 
their size and quality. According to experience, for a box 
of tin-plate, as furnished by the English factories, and 
which contains from 119 to 126 lbs. of tin plate, 7^2 to g}^ 
lbs. of tin. about 2 lbs. of palm oil or tallow and 9 to 11 
lbs. of sulphuric acid are required. It will be seen that 
the above-described method of making tin plate, which is 
the one used in England, is rather tedious and expensive, 
but the product obtained is an excellent one. 

In Germany the preparation of the plates for tinning is 
the same as that used in England, but the operation of 
tinning differs essentially. The first step in the process is 
the so-called burni?ig-i}i of plates, which is effected in the 
burning-in pot. The latter is about i8}4 inches long, 1414 
inches Avide and 18^ inches deep, and is filled with melted 
tin covered with a layer of fat. 

The plates are placed to the number of about 200 within 
the pot, then taken out in lots of about 2'^ each and cooled 
in water. When all the plates have been removed, the pot 
is divided into two compartments, one larger than the 
other, by inserting an iron plate in grooves in the sides of 
the pot. xA portion of the burnt-in plates are now placed 
in the larger compartment and after remaining for some 
time in the tin bath, they are taken out separately and 
placed upon iron frames to drain off. This operation is 



MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 163 

called burni/ig off. The burnt-off plates are then separately 
plunged into the smaller compartment of the pot. After 
removal from this compartment and draining off, they are 
considered sufficiently tinned and the wire of tin formed 
in the course of the operation is removed in a manner sim- 
ilar to that as in the English process. 

Quality of Ti/i Fhife.—Tht tests for tin plates are ductil- 
ity, strength and color, and to possess these, the iron must 
be of the best quality, and all the process be conducted 
with care and skill. The following conditions are inserted 
in some specifications, and will serve to indicate the 
strength and ductility of first-class tin plates : 

1. They must bear cutting into strips of a width equal to 
ten times tlie thickness of the plate, both with and across 
the fibre, without splitting ; the strips must bear, while hot, 
being bent upon a mould to a sweep equal to four times 
the widtli of the strip. 

2. While cold, the plates must bear bending in a head- 
ing macliine, in such a manner as to form a cylinder, the 
diameter of wjiich shall at most be equal to sixty times the 
thickness of the plate. In these tests, the plate must show 
neither flaw nor crack of any kind. 

To Recognize a Content of Lead in Tin. — Make a solu- 
tion of potassium chromate in water. Then apply a few 
drops of pure acetic acid to the tin to be examined, and 
a whitisli coating will appear. To this whitish coating 
apply a few drops of the potassium chromate solution ; if 
the coating turns yellow, the tin contains lead, and the 
more the greater the intensity of the yellow color. The 
reaction is so sharp as to indicate xooVoo P^^^ °^ lead. 

Crystallized Tin Plate. — Crystallized tin plate is a varie- 
gated primrose appearance produced upon the surface of 
tin plate by applying to it in a heated state some dilute 
nitro-muriatic acid for a few seconds, then washing it with 
water, drying and coating it with lacquer. The figures are 



164 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



more or less beautiful and diversified, according to the de- 
gree of heat and relative dilution of the acid. Place the 
tin plate, slightly heated, over a tub of water, and rub its 
surface with a sponge dipped in a liquor composed of 4 parts 
of aquafortis and 2 of distilled water, holding i of common 
salt or sal ammoniac in solution. Whenever the crystalline 
spangles seem to be thoroughly brought out, the plate must 
be immersed in water, washed either with a feather or a 
little cotton (taking care not to rub off the film of tin that 
forms the feathering), forthwith dried with a low heat, and 
coated with a lacquer varnish ; otherwise it loses its lustre 
in the air. If the whole surface is not plunged at once in 
cold water, but if it be partially cooled by sprinkling water 
on It, the crystallization will be finely variegated with large 
and small figures. Similar results will be obtained by 
blowing cold air through a pipe on the tinned surface while 
it is just passing from the fused to the solid state. 

Size, Length, Breadth and Weight of Tin Plates. 



Brand Mark. 



I C 

I X ... 

I XX 

I XXX ... 
I XXXX. . . . 
I XXXXX . . 
I XXXXXX . 

I) c 

D X 

D XX 

I) XXX 

D XXXX. . . 
D XXXXX . . 

\) XXXXXX . 

S DC... 

S D X 

S D XX . . . 
S D XXX. . . 
S D XXXX. 
S D XXXXX. 



S I) XXXXXX. 



No. of 

Sheets 
in Box. 

225 
225 
225 
225 
225 
225 
225 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 
200 



Length and 


Weight per 


Breadth 

1 




Box. 


1 4 in 


.bv 


10 


icwt qr olb 


14 


by 


10 


I I 


14 


bv 


lO 


I I 21 


14 


by 


lO 


I 2 14 


14 


l.v 


10 


I 3 7 


14 


bv 


10 


200 


14 


bv 


10 


2021 



l)V 

b'v 

bv 

bv 
bv 
h\ 
by 
bv 
h\ 
bv 
bv 
hv 
by 
bv 



12>i 

I2>^ 
I2K 

I2K 

12^: 

II 

II 

'' I 
II 

II 

II i 

II ! 



14 
14 

7 

o 

21 

14 

7 

27 

20 

13 
6 

27 
20 

13 



TIN HOOFING AND TIN WORK. 1G5 

Tin Roofing and Tin Work. — Tin roofing is measured by 
the square of loo superficial feet ; liips, valleys and flash- 
ings, by the foot lineal. Gutters and down-spouts (or con- 
ductors and leaders) are measured by the foot lineal, and 
are rated generally by their diameters, but sometimes by 
their girt. 

A box of roofing tin contains 112 sheets, 14 X 20 inches, 
and weiglis from no to 145 lbs. per box — the Ponty- 
miester MF, and other good brands of IC charcoal tin, 
weighing an average of 112 lbs. per box, or i lb. per sheet, 
and X tin, 140 lbs. per box, or tJ^ lb. per sheet. Roofing 
tin can now be had double size, or 20 X 28 inches, weighing 
IC 125 lbs. per box, and X tin 283 lbs. per box. This 
latter size is the most economical in its use, saving the ma- 
terial and labor of one-fourth of the seams and ribs. 

One sheet of tin, 14 X 20 inches, will cover 235^^5 
inches superficial, or i foot 7I/2 inches superficial of stand- 
ing-joint roof; and a box of 112 sheets will cover 182 feet 
14 inches of roof, allowing i inch and \y^ inches for the 
two side ribs, and y^ inch for top and ^A inch for bottom 
laps. 

One sheet, 14 X 20 inches, will cover, of flat-lock roofing, 
255 superficial inches, or i foot 91^ inches ; and a box of 
T12 sheets, 198 feet 3 inches, allowing ^ inch all around 
for joints; 6iJ-^ sheets, 14 X 20 inches, will cover one 
square of 100 feet sn|)erfi(-ial ; and weigh IC tin 61^ lbs., 
and X tin 761-2 lbs. 

In these calculations there is no allowance for wastage 
on hips, valleys, flasliings, combings, etc., which are con- 
trolled partly by the shape and size of the roof, but mostly 
by the skill and care of the workman. 

The following sizes work the tin plates without any 
waste, and with a single seam in the pipes. Intermediate 
and larger sizes either leave a waste strip of tin on every 
sheet, or require additional work in seaming the pieces to- 
gether. 



Id6 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 



Table showing the Lengths and Diameters of Pipes. 7nade 
from Sheets, and also the amount contained in one Box. 



Sheets. 


Boxes. 


Diameter Number of 


Size of 


Length of 


Number in 


Length of 


of Pipe. Sheets. 


Sheets. 


Pipe. ; 


Boxes. 


Pipe. 


Inches. 


Indies. 


Ft. In. 


Sheets. 


Feet. 


6 4- ; One sheet. 


14 X 20 


I i]A 


1 12 


126 


41^ |One sheet. 


14 X 20 


I 1% 


1 12 


182 


4 Two sheets. 


14 ~< 20 


3 ^% 


1 112 


189 


2,y% One sheet. 


14 X 20 


2 3 


1 112 


252 


2j^ One sheet. 


14 X 20 


3 3 


1 12 


364 



Semicircular Gutters. 



Sheets. 


Boxes. 


Girt. 


Number of 
Sheets. 


Size of Length of 
Sheets. Gutter. 


Number in'Length of 
Boxes. 1 Gutter. 


Inches. 
19 
13 


One sheet. 
One sheet. 


Inches. ; Ft. In. 
14 X 20 I I i^ 

14 X 20 I liA 


' Sheets. 
1 112 
112 


Feel. 
126 
182 



Galvanized Iron. — This material, wliich is of compara- 
tively recent origin, is much used in this country for rain- 
n-ater guttering and cornices for architectural purposes. 
Some of these cornices, when containing many members 
of moulding, especially if they are circular in plan, need 
much skill. In general princijjle the metal is bent over 
the hatchet-stake with mallet or hammer, much as in mak- 
ing other guttering, assisting with swages where necessary. 
The following observations on circular work are by Mr. C. 
A. Vaile. 

In making up circular mouldings, it is necessary to have 
the material sufficiently heavy to bear shrinking and 
stretching without breaking or becoming brittle. The best 
plan to bring mouldings to the required shape is as follows: 



GALVANIZED IRON. ^ 167 

Tiike a piece of hard wood (oak) 4X4 inches and 12 




Fig. 1 5^ 



i^ 



Fig. 1 65. 



inches long, make a profile of work intended, and on one end 
of this piece make a die of the desired shape ; to this must 




Fig. 166. 



Fig. 167. 
be fitted a plunger, allowing the thickness of iron to inter- 




168 TIN, SHEET-mON AND COPPEK-PLATE WORKER. 

vcDC. The die is shown in the annexed figures: Fig. 164 
is the top; Fig. 165 the sectional view of the plunger and 
die for a half-round mould. Fig. 164 is to be made in the 
same circle as the work. Figs. 166 and 167 are the same 



*.><V' I c** 



U 




F,g..68. 

of a different moulding. Fig. 164 or 167 is to be placed 
in an oak block as Fig. 168. The right hand portion 
should be of sufficient length to answer for a seat to the 
operator. Fig. 169 is a mallet about 12 inches long. To 
make these dies imagine the cap to be 
stamped from one piece, and get out the die 
and plunger accordingly. The tools re- 
quired will be a saw, brace and ^ inch 
bit, a straight chisel, two or three sizes of 
gouges and a rasp curved at one end. 
When the iron is cut to the required pat- 
tern it is raised in these dies ; shifting the 
mould to and fro each tinie it is forced into 
the die with a blow on the plunger from 
the mallet, until it is brought to the required 
shape. A little practice will soon demon- 
strate the utility of this method,' and also 
its superiority over the hammering proc- 
ess. 

When work is to be joined, never place two raw edges 
together. On one of the members turn ^ of an inch 
edge, and lap the member on this, and soak the sol- 
der in well, so as to firmly unite the pieces, and on the 
top strip that is to be built in the wall turn a half-inch 



Fig. 169. 



GALVANIZED IRON, ETC. 



169 



edge, to stiffen and answer the purpose of straps to hold the 
cap in position. An edge of the same kind should also 
be turned on bottom strip, to extend over the frame ; and 
if the cap is to have a drop or corbel, let the inside of the 
drop or corbel extend back past the frame at least one 
inch, to secure the corbel to the frame, and the other side 
of corbel have a half-inch edge to fit against the wall. 

Should the work be for a building already up, the strip 
should have an edge sufficient to nail through into mortar 
joints. Good judgment is required in putting up work of 
this character, to make it a success. 

American Lap Weld Iron Boiler Flues, Mamifactured by 
the Reading Ikon Company. 



Outside 


W. G. 


Weight 


Outside 


W. G. 


Weight 


Diameter 


Nos. 


per Foot, ! 
About 

i 


Diameter. 


Nos. 


per Foot, 
About 


l^in. 


i6 


I lb. 


3X 


1 1 


4 


1% 


15 


I I-IO 1 


Z% 


lo 


4M' 


l^ 


14 


ly. 


4 


lO 


5K 


2 


13 


2 


5 





VA 


2X 


12 


^% 


6 


8 


lO 


2^ 


12 


2^ 


7 


7 


13 


2U 


II 


zYz 


8 


6 




3 


II 


y/z 









Calibre and Weights of Fountains or Aqueduct Pipes. 

Very light Lead Pipes for Hydraulic Rams, and for con- 
ducting water at long distances, under slight pressure or 
head of water. 



Calibre. 



Weight 
per foot. 



Av. 

length. 



% inch. 
Y% inch, 
Yz inch, 
y% inch . 



oz. 


ft. 


6 


1600 


8 


1200 


10 


1000 


12 


900 



Calibre. 



^ inch 

I inch.. . . 
1% inch... . 
xy inch 



Weight I Av. 
per foot, 'length. 



lbs. oz, I ft. 

I 2 I 550 

1 12 I 400 

2 j 250 
2 4 I 200 



170 TIN, SHEET-IROX AXD COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Calibre a?hi WeigJii of Lead Pipe. 



Calibre. 


We 

pel 


ght 
ft. 


Av. 
length. 


\ Calibre. 

1 1 


Weight 
per foot. 


Av. 

length. 




lbs. 


oz. 


ft. 


! i 


lbs, oz. 


ft. 


X in. light 




8 


300 


i\ in. medium.. 


5 4 


28 


strong.. .. 




12 


225 


strong.. .. 


6 4 


24 


ex. strong 


I 


4 


120 


ex. strong 


7 - 


21 


^ in. light 




12 


225 


i|-in, ex. light..! 


3 12 


42 


medium. . 


I 




150 


light.... 


4 8 


33 


strong.. .. 


I 


s 


100 


medium. .1 


5 8 


27 


ex. strong 


2 




75 


strong. . ..| 


6 8 


23 


^ in. light 


I 




150 


ex. strong^ 


8 4 


18 


niedium . . 


-I 


4 


\20 


2 in. ex. light.. : 


4 S 


33 


strong. . . . 


I 


12 


85 


light 


5 8 


27 


ex. strong 


2 


7 


60 


medium, .i 


7 


21 


yi in. ex. light. . 


I 


4 


120 


strong.. ..! 


8 


18 


light 


I 


12 


^'^ 


ex. strong 


9 8 


15 


medium . . 


2 


4 


65 


2I in. -/^ thick.. 


7 13 


15 


strong . . . . 


2 


8 


60 


X thick.. 


8 13 


15 


ex. strong 


3 




50 


Y^ thick.. 


13 ri 


15 


%vs\. ex. light. . 


I 


8 


100 


H tl^ick..; 


16 12 


15 


Jight 


-7 




75 


3 in. waste.. ..'■ 


5 


15 


medium.. 


2 


8 


60 : 


j\ thick.: 


9 5 


15 


strong 


3 




50 


X thick.. 


12 10 


15 


ex. strong 


3 


lO 


43 


-/V, thick..' 


16 


15 


I in. ex. light.. 


2 


4 


65 


ys thick.. 


19 II 


15 


light 


2 


12 


55 


3J in. X thick.. 


15 


15 


medium . . 


3 


8 


45 


-f. thick.. 


18 5 


*5 


strong.. .. 


4 




38 


34 thick..} 


21 12 


15 


ex. strong 


3 


12 


42 


tV thick.., 


26 13 


15 


l^in, ex. light.. 




12 


Yt' 


4 in. waste.. . ., 


5 5 


15 


light 


3 


4 


46 


X thick.. i 


16 12 


15 


medium.. 


4 




38 \ 


■j'-g thick.. 


21 


15 


strong. . . . 


4 


8 


l\ 


}i thick.. 


25 4 


15 


ex. strong 


6 




-S 


-,^ thick.. 


30 


15 


\\\x\. ex. light. . 


3 


8 


^-^ 1 


4^- in. waste. . . . 


5 12 


15 


light 


4 


4 


35 1 


5 in. waste. . . . 

1 


8 


15 



To ascertain the Weiglits of Pipes of various Metals, and 
any Diameter required. 

Rule. — To the interior diameter of tlie pipe, in inches, 
add the thickness of the metal : mtiltiply the sum by the 
decimal number opposite the required thickness and under 



PIPES. 



171 



the metal's name ; also by tlie length of the pipe in feet ; 
and the product is the weight of the pipe in pounds. 



Thick, 
inch. 


Wr'ght 
Iron. 


Copper 


Lead. 


Thick, 
inch. 


Wr'ght 
Iron. 


Copper 


Lead. 


^, 


.326 


•38 


.483 


5 

3 2 


1.627 


1.9 


2.417 


t\ 


.^53 


■\7b 


.967 


1% 


1.95 


2.28 


2.9 


s'j 


.976 


1. 14 


1-45 


3'2 


2.277 


2.66 


33^3 


i 


1-3 


1.52 


1-933 


i 


2.6 


3-04 


3.867 



Application of the Rule. — Required the weight of a cop- 
per pipe, whose interior diameter is 2)/^ inches, its length 
20 feet, and the metal Jg of an inch in thickness. 

2.25 + .125 = 2.375 X 1.52 X 20 = 72.2 lbs. 

Weight of a Square Foot of Sheet- Iron, Copper, and Brass, 
as per Birmingham Wire Gauge. 



7^0. of 
Gauge. 


Iron. 


Copper 


1 
Brass. 1 


No. of 
Gauge. 

16 


Iron. 


Galv. 
Iron. 


Copper 


Brass. 


I 


12.5 


14.5 


1375! 


2.62 


3- 


2.9 


2.7s 


2 


12. 


139 


J3-2 1 


17 


2.20 


2.69 


2.52 


2.4 


3 


II. 


12.75 


12. 1 j 


18 


1.92 


2.31 


2.15 


2.04 


4 


10.5 


II. 6 


II. 


19 


1-75' 


2,07 


1.97 


1.87 


5 


9- 


lO.I 


9.61 


20 


1-54 


1-75 


1.78 


1.69 


6 


8.34 


9.4 


8.93 1 


21 


1-4 


1-5 


1.62 


1-54 


7 


7-5 


8.7 


8.25 


22 


1.2c; 


1.32 


i^45 


1^37 


8 


6.86 


7.9 


7-54! 


■23 


113 


1. 19 


1-3 


1.23 


9 


6.29 


7.2 


6.86 


24 


1.02 


1.06 


1. 16 


I.I 


10 


5.62 


6.S 


6.18 


25 


• Q 


I. 


1.04 


•99 


II 


5- 


5-8 


5-5 


26 


.8 


.96 


.92 


.88 


12 


4-5 


5.08 


4.81 


27 


•75 


.88 


•83 


•79 


13 


4- 


4-34 


4.12 


28 


.65 


•75 


•74 


•7 


14 


3-23 


3-6 


3-43 


29 


.58 


.69 


.64 


.61 


15 


2.97 


3-27 


31 













172 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER PL A IE WORKER. 

GAS PIPES. ■ 

Table of the Diameter and Leugtli of Gas Pipes to Trans- 
init Given Quantities of Gas to BraneJi Fipes and 
Burners. 



iJ . 




^ 


. 






^ ^ 




^ 


L5 ^ 


I— . 


"o 






It 

S'5. 


"of 


He. 2" 




^ <u 




ct 


A 1* 


c &, 


C3 


o ^ 


OJ 




n; 


u 




^^ 




5 


-.^ 


w4 


5 


per hour. 


feet. 


inches. 


per hour. 


feet. 


inches 


50 


100 


0.40 


2000 


2000 


5-32 


250 


200 


1. 00 


2000 


4000 


6.33 


500 


600 


1.97 


i 2000 


6000 


7.00 


700 


1000 


2.65 


6000 


1000 


7-75 


1000 


1000 


316 


6000 


2000 


9.21 


1500 


1000 


3-^7 


8000 


1000 


8.95 


2000 


1000 


4-47 


8000 


2000 


16.65 



These dimensions are applicable to the mains which 
conduct the gas to the places where it is to be iised. If 
they send off branches for burners, the diameter may be 
reduced or the length may be greater. For example, if a 
pipe of 5.32 inches, which transmits 2000 cubic feet 
through a length of 2000 feet gives off, in this space, 1000 
cubic feet of gas, then the same diameter can continue to 
transmit the gas through a length of 2450 feet. 



SERVICES FOR LAMPS. 



2 Lamps 


40 feet 


from Main require 


pipe 


H 


inch Bore 


4 


<< Ci 


" 


" 


% 


" 


cc 


6 


50 " 


a (( ti 


" 


H 


" 


" 


10 " 


100 " 


a ii (( 


(( 


U 


(( 


(( 


15 « 

20 " 


130 " 
150 " 


: ;: " 


«. 


I 


«« 


« 


25 " 


180 - 


u 


I' 


1% 


<( 


E< 


30 " 


200 " 


" " " 


<< 


^% 


« 


< 



WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 



173 



Weight of a Superficial Foot of Plates of Different Metals 
in Founds. 



-J 




lA 


<u 




a 


Thickness. 


Si 1— 1 








(U 


^ 




H 


^ 


m 


u 


^ 


N 




- 


2-5 


2.7 


2.9 


3-7 


2.3 


0625 in. = 16 Bir- 


/8 


5-0 


5-5 


5-« 


7-4 


4-7 


1250 " = II ming- 


■,% 


7-5 


8.2 


8.7 


II. I 


7.0 


1875 " = 7 ham 


Ya 


lO.O 


II.O 


II. 6 


14.8 


9.4 


2500 " =r 4 wire 




12.5 


13-7 


14-5 


18.5 


II. 7 


3125 " = I gauge 


H 


15- 


ib.4 


17.2 


22.2 


14.0 


3750 


tV 


17-5 


192 


20.0 


25-9 


16.4 


4375 


/2 


20.0 


21.9 


22.9 


29-5 


18.7 


5000 


1^^ 


22.5 


24.6 


257 


33-2 


21,1 


5625 




25.0 


27.4 


28.6 


36-9 


23-4 1 


6250 


li 


27-5 


30.1 


31-4 


40.6 


257 1 


6875 


y4 


30.0 


329 


34-3 


443 


28.1 


7500 


TF 


32.5 


35-^ 


37-2 


480 


30-4 


8125 


ys 


350 


3^-3 


40.0 


51-7 


32.8 


8750 


H 


37-5 


41.2 


42.9 


55-4 


35-1 


9375 


I 


40.0 


43-9 


45-« 


59-1 


37-5 I 


0000 



Recapitulation of Weights of Various Substances. 



Names. 



Cast iron 

Wrought iron . , 

Steel 

Copper ..,..., 

Lead 

Brass ........ 

Tin 

White pine . . . 
Salt water (sea 
Fresh water , . 

Air 

Steam 




■^.s 

u 



.2607 

.2816 

.2834 

.32118 

.4101 

.3112 

.263 

.0171 

.03721 

.03616 



174 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Cast iron expands t^sAuo of its length for one degree Oi 
heat ; greatest change in ilie shade, in this climate, ttV(j of 
its length; exposed to the sun's rays, toVo ; shrinks in 
cooling from sV to ttV of its length ; is crushed by a force 
of 93.000 lbs. upon a square inch ; will bear, without per- 
manent alterations, 15,300 lbs. upon a square inch, and an 
extension of t2Vt) of its lengih. AVeight of modulus of 
elasticity for a base of an inch square, 18,400,000 lbs. ; 
height of modulus of elasticity, 5,750,000 feet. 

Wrought iron expands usVoo of its length for one degree 
of heat ; will bear on a square inch, without permanent 
alterations, 17,800 lbs., and an extension in length of 
Troo; cohesive force is diminished 30V0 by an increase of 
one degree of heat. Weight of modulus of elasticity for a 
base of an inch square, 24, 92c, 00c lbs. ; height of modulus 
of elasticity, 7,550,000 feet. 



Table Shounng the Figures by ivhich ^he Weight of the Pat- 
tern has to be Multiplied to Obtair. the V/eipht of the 
Casting {Aecordiug to Karmarsch). 









Material of the 


casting 






Material of the 
pattern. 


Cast 


iron. 


i 






S3 




Bell or 




a 


b 


gun 
metal. 


Pine 

Oak 


14. 

9- 

9-7 
134 
10.2 
10.6 
12.8 
II. 7 

0.84 


17.5 
10.9 
II. I 

130 
13-5 
135 

0.95 1 


15.8 

lO.I 

10.9 

151 
II =; 
119 

14-3 

132 

0-95 


16.7 
10.4 
11.4 

15-7 
1 1.9 

12.3 
149 

137 

0.99 


16.3 
10.3 

"•3 
155 
11.8 
12.2 
14.7 
13-5 
0.98 


.3.5 

8.6 

9.4 
12.9 

9.8 
10.2 
12.2 
II. 2 

0.81 


17. 1 
10.9 
11.9 

16.3 
12.4 
12.9 

15-5 

14.2 

I. 


Beech 

Bass 

Pear 

Birch 


Alder. , . . 

Mahogany 

Brass 



WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 175 

Table Continued. 





Material of the casting. 


Material of the 
pattern. 


Cast iron. 


i. 


S 

e2J 


6 

P 


d 

N 


Bell or 




a b 


gun 
metal. 


Zinc 


I. 

0.89 ; 1. 1 1 
0.64 0.79 
0.97 


1 13 

I. 

0.72 

1.09 


1. 17 

1.03 
0.74 
1. 13 


1.16 

0.03 
0.74 
1. 12 


0.96 

0.85 
0.61 
093 


I 22 


Tin (with y^ to 

Xlead) 

Lead 

Cast iron 


1. 12 

0.78 
1. 18 





T • 1 

Linear - 

a 


If the cubic content 
of the pattern = i, 
that of the casting is 

= ^ — a 3. 


Cast iron 


Jg =0.0104 

tV =0.0139 

^L = 0.0208 
eV =0.0154 

tIt = 0.0075 

J3 =0.0159 

gV = 0.016 1 

_^1 = 0.0078 
_1_ = 0.0109 


3 1 = 0.9688 
If = 0.9584 
\% = 0.9376 

Ii = 0.9545 
If = 0.9776 
f 1 = 0.9545 

If = 0.9524 
|- = 0.9766 
f- = 0.9678 


Cast steel 


Malleable casting 

Bra.ss and tombac 

Gun metal 

Bell metal 


Zinc 

Tin 


Lead 





The weight of larger castings can be approximately 
determined by the formula G = ^^ - M, when s in- 
dicates the specific gravity of the pattern, S that of the 
casting, M the absolute weight of the pattern, and a the 
proportion of shrinkage (see the above table). 

Shrinkage of Castings. — In making castings of deter- 
mined size the shrinkage of the metals in passing from the 
melted into the solid and cold state must be taken into 
consideration. The table given above shows the shrinkage 



176 TIN, SHEET-mON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

of the metals and the proportions of volumes between the 
pattern and casting. 

By a is expressed the proportion of shrinkage, /. e., the 
quotient from the volume of the model = i and the bodily 
shrinkage of the cast metal. The areas and bodily shrink- 
age are obtained by multiplying , the separate values of-^ 
by 2 or 3, as the case may be. 



Speed of Saws Running io,ooo Feet per Minute on the 

Rim. 

72 inches 530 revolutions per minute. 



68 
64 
60 
56 
52 
48 
44 
40 
36 
32 
28 
24 
20 
16 
12 
10 
8 



560 


i 


600 


I It (( 


640 * 


< (( it 


700 


I *c tt 


750 


t it tl 


815 


I it «t 


890 


( (« « 


980 


( i( tt 


1080 


< (( (( 


1225 


t « « 


1400 ' 


( (( ti 


1630 


I (t tt 


i960 ' 


( t< <t 


2450 


C It tt 


3260 ' 


< (( tt 


3920 


t tt tt 


4600 ' 


I tt tt 



Rules for Calculating Speeds, etc. 

Problem i. — The diameter of driving and driven pulleys 
and the speed of driver being given, find the speed of 
driven. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of driver by its number of 
revolutions and divide the product by the diameter of the 
driven ; the quotient will be the number of revolutions of 
driven. 



SPEED OF SAWS. . 177 

Problem 2. — The diameter and revolutions of driver and 
the revolutions being given, to find the diameter of the 
driven. 

Rule. — Multiply the revolutions of driven by its diam- 
eter and divide the product by the revolutions of the 
driver \ the quotient will be the diameter of driven. 



PRACTICAL RECEIPTS. 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 

Japaxxixg is the art of covering bodies by grornds of 
opaque colors in varnish, which may be afterwaras dec- 
orated by printing or gilding, or left in a plain state. It is 
also to be looked upon in another sense, as that of orna- 
menting coaches, snuff-boxes, screens, etc. All surfaces to 
be japanned must be perfectly clean, and leather should be 
stretched on frames. Paper should be stiff for japanning. 

The French prime all their japanned articles, the Eng- 
lish do not. This priming is generally of common size. 
Those articles, that are primed thus, never endure as well 
as those that receive the japan coating on the first opera- 
tion, and thus it is that those articles of japan work that 
are primed with size, when they are used for some time, 
crack, and the coats of japan fly off in flakes. 

A solution of strong isinglass size and honey, or sugar 
candy, makes a good japan varni-h to cover water colors 
on gold grounds. 

A pure white priming for japanning, for the cheap 
method, is made with parchment size, and one-third of 
isinglass, laid on verv thin and smooth. It is the better 
for three coats, and when the last coat is dry, it is pre- 
pared to receive the painting or figures. Previous to the 
last coat, however, the work should be smoothly polished. 
When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no priming 
used, the best plan is to lay on two or three coats of varnishi 
made of seed-lac and resin, two ounces each, dissolved in 
alcohol and strained through a cloth. This varnish should 
be put on in a warm place, and the work to be varnished 
178 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 17y 

should, if possible, be warm also, and all dampness should 
be avoided, to prevent the varnish from being chilled. 
When the work is prepared with the above composition^ 
■ and dry, it is fit for the proper japan to be laid on. If the 
ground is not to be white the most suitable varnish now to be 
used is made of shellac, as it is the best vehicle for all colors. 
This is made in the following proportions : The best shel- 
lac, five ounces, made into powder, steeped in a quart of al- 
cohol, and kept at a gentle heat for two or three days and 
shaken frequently, after which the solution must be filtered 
through a flannel bag, and kept in a well-corked bottle for 
use. This varnish for liard japanning on copper or tin will 
stand for ever, unless fire or hammer be used to burn or 
beat it off. 

The color to be used with shellac varnish may be of any 
pigments whatever to give the desired shade, as this varnish 
will mix with any color. 

White Japaii Ground. — To form a hard, perfectly white 
ground is no easy matter, as tlie substances which are 
generally used to make the japan hard, liave a tendency, 
by a number of coats, to look or become dull in brightness. 
One white ground is made by the following composition : 
White flake or lead waslied over and ground up with a 
sixth of its weight of starch, then dried and mixed with the 
finest gum, ground u]) in tlie proportion of one ounce gum to 
half an ounce of rectified turpentine, mixed and ground thor- 
oughly together. This is to be finely laid on the article to 
be japanned, dried, and then varnished with five or six 
coats of the following : Two ounces of the whitest seed-lac 
to three ounces of gum anime reduced to a fine powder and 
dissolved in a quart of alcohol. This lac must be carefully 
picked. For a softer varnish than this, a little turpentine 
should be added, and less of the gum. A very good varnish 
and not brittle, may be made by dissolving gum anime in 
nut oil, boiling it gently as the gum is added; and giving 



ISO TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

the oil as much gum as it will take up. The ground of 
white varnish may of itself be made of this varnish, by 
giving two or three coats of it. but when used it should be 
diluted with pure turpentine. Althougli this varnish is not 
brittle it is liable to be indented with brusli-strokes, and it 
will not bear to be polished,, but if well laid on it will not 
need polishing afterwards. It also takes some time to dry. 
Heat applied to all oils, however, darkens their color, and 
oil varnishes for white grow very yellow if not exposed to a 
full clear light. 

Gum Copal. — Copal varnish is one of the very finest 
varnishes for japanning purposes. It can be dissolved by 
linseed oil, rendered dry by adding some quicklime at a 
heat somewhat less than will boil or decompose the oil. 

This solution, with the addition of a little turpentine, 
forms a very transparent varnish, winch, wlien proi)erly 
applied and slowly dried is very hard and durable. This 
varnish is applied to snutT boxes, tea trays and otlier uten- 
sils. It also preserves paintings and renders their sur- 
faces capable of reflecting light more uniformly. 

If powdered copal be mixed in a mortar with camphor, 
it softens and becomes a coherent mass, and if camphor be 
added to alcohol it becomes an excellent solvent of copal 
by adding the latter, ground well, and employing a tolerable 
degree of heat, using a well-corked vessel, with a long neck 
to allow of expansion. The vessel must only be about one- 
fourth filled with the mixture. Copal can also be incor- 
porated with turpentine, with one part of powdered copal 
to twelve parts of pure turpentine, subjected to the heat of 
a sand-bath for several days in a long-necked matrass, shak- 
ing it frequently. 

Copal is a good varnisli for metals, such as ////; the 
varnish must be dried in an oven, each coat, and it can be 
colored with some substances, but alcohol varnish will mix 
with any coloring matter. For white japans or varnishes. 



japanni:n"g and yahnishing. ui 

we have already shown that fine chalk or white lead is 
used as a basis, and the varnishes coated over it. 

To japan or varnish white leather, so that it may be 
elastic, is altogetlier a different work from varnishing or 
japanning wood or metal, or papier-mache. 

For wliite leather oil is the principal ingredient, as it is 
well known that chalk is extensively used to give white 
leather its pure color, or speaking more philosophically, its 
fair colorless whiteness. White leather having already the 
basis of white varnish, it should get a light coat of the pure 
varnish, before mentioned, and be dried well in the oven, 
or a coat of the oil copal will answer very well. This being 
well dried, boiled nut oil carefully laid on and successively 
dried, wiP make a most beautiful white varnish for leather, 
not liable to crack. This quality takes a long time to dry, 
and of course is more expensive. Coarse varnish may be 
made of boiled linseed oil, to which is added gradually 
the acetate of lead as a drier. This addition must be 
made very cautiously, as the oil will be very apt to foam 
over. 

A better and more safe drying mixture than the mere 
acetate of lead, is made by dissolving the acetate of lead in 
a small quantity of water, neutralizing the acid with the addi- 
tion of pipe clay, evaporating the sediment to perfect dry- 
ness, and feeding the oil while gently boiling, gradually to it. 

These varnishes or japans, as far as described, have only 
reference to white grounds. 

There is some nice work to be ob erved, and there is 
much in applying the varnishes at the right time, knowing 
by the eye the proper moment when the mixture is perfect, 
or when to add any ingredients. These things require 
practice. 

Black Grounds. — Black grounds for japans may be made 
by mixing ivory black with shellac varnish ; or for coarse 
work, lamp black and the top coating of common seed-lac 



182 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPEE-PLATE WORKER. 

varnish. A common black japan may be made by painting 
a piece of work with drying oil (oil mixed with lead), and 
putting the work into a stove, not too hot, but of such a 
degree, gradually raising the heat and keeping it up for a 
long time, so as not to burn the oil and make it blister. 
This process makes very fair japan and requires no pol- 
ishing. 

Black Japaii. — As})haltum 50 lbs., dark guni-anime 8 
lbs., fuse; add linseed oil 12 gallons, boil, add dark gum 
amber 10 lbs., previously fused and boiled with linseed oil 
2 gallons, add the driers: put the work into a stove as 
above. Used for wood or metals. 

Brufisivick Black. — i. Asphaltum 45 lbs., drying oil 6 
gallons, litharge 6 lbs., boil as last, and thin with 25 
gallons of oil of turpentine. Used for ironwork, etc. 
2. Black pitch and gas tar asphaltum, of each 25 lbs., boil 
gently for 5 hours, then add linseed oil 8 gallons, litharge 
and red lead, of each 10 lbs., boil as before, and thin with 
oil of turpentine 20 gallons. Inferior to the last, but 
cheaper. 

Blue Japan Grounds. — Blue japan grounds may be 
formed of bright Prussian blue. The color may be mixed 
with shellac varnish, and brought to a polishing state by 5 
or 6 coats of varnish of seed-lac. The varnisli, liowever, 
is apt to give a greenish tinge to the blue, as the varnish 
has a yellowish tinge, and blue and yellow form a green. 
Whenever a light blue is desired, the purest varnish must 
always be used. 

Scarlet Japan. — Ground vermilion may be used for this, 
but being so glaring it is not beautiful unless covered over 
with rose-pink or lake, which have a good effect when thus 
used. For a verv bright crimson ground, safflower or In- 
dian lake should be used, always dissolved in tiie alcohol 
of which the varnish is made. In place of this lake, 
carmine may be used, as it is more common. The top coat 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 183 

of varnish must always be of the white seed-lac, which has 
been before described, and as many coats given as may be 
thought proper ; it is easy to judge of this. 

Yellow Grouuih. — If turmeric be dissolved in spirit of 
wine and strained through a cloth, and tlien mixed with 
pure seed-lac varnish, it makes a good yellow japan. Saf- 
fron will answer for the same purpose in the same way, but 
the brightest yellow ground is made by a primary coat of 
pure chrome yellow, and coated successively with the var- 
nish. Dutch pink is used for a kind of cheap yellow japan 
ground. If a little dragon's blood be added to the varnish 
for yellow japan, a most beautiful and rich salmon-colored 
varnish is the result, and by these two mixtures all the 
shades of flesh-colored japans are produced. 

Gj-eeii Japan Grounds. ^K good green may be made by 
mixing Prussian blue along with the chromate of lead, or 
with turmeric, or orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic), or ochre, 
only the two should be ground together and dissolved in 
alcohol, and applied as a ground, then coated with four or 
five coats of shellac varnish, in the manner already de- 
scribed. A very bright green is made by laying on a 
ground of Dutch metal, or gold leaf, and then coating 
it over with distilled verdigris dissolved in alcohol, tlien 
the varnishes on the top. This is a splendid green, bril- 
liant and glowing. 

Orange- colored Grounds. — Orange grounds may be made 
of yellow mixed with vermilion or carmine, just as a 
bright or rather inferior color is wanted. The yellow 
should always be in quantity to make a good full color, 
and the red added in proportion to the depth of shade. 
If there is not a good full body of yellow, the color will 
look watery, or bare, as it is technically termed. 

Purple Japan Grounds. — These are made by a mixture of 
lake and Prussian blue or carmine, or for an inferior color 
vermilion, and treated as the foregoing. When the ground 



184 TIX, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

is laid on and perfectly dried, a thin coat of ])ure boiled 
nut oil then laid on and also dried, is a good method 
for a japan not liable to crack. But a better plan is to use 
this oil in the varnish, which should contain considerable 
pure turpentine, giving the first coat after tlie ground is 
laid on. In every case where oil is used for any purpose 
for varnish, it is all the better if turpentine is mixed with 
it. Turpentine enables oils to mix with either alcohol or 
water. Alkalies have this property also. 

Black Japa7i. — i. Asphaltum, 3 oz. ; boiled oil, 4 quarts; 
burnt umber, 8 oz. Mix by heat, and when cooling thin 
with turpentine. 2. Amber, 12 oz. ; asphaltum, 2 oz. ; 
fuse by heat, add boiled oil, half a pint, resin 2 oz. When 
cooling, add 16 oz. oil of turpentine. Both are used to 
varnish metals. 

Japa7i Black for Leathe7'. — i. Burnt umber, 4 oz. ; true 
asphaltum, 2 oz. ; boiled oil, 2 quarts. Dissolve the as- 
phaltum by heat in a little of the oil, add the burnt umber 
ground in oil, and the remainder of the oil, mix, cool and 
thin with turpentine; flexible. 2. Shellac, i part ; wood 
naphtha, 4 parts ; dissolve, and color with lampblack ; in- 
flexible. 

TraTisparenl Japan. — Oil of turpentine, 4 oz. ; oil of 
lavender, 3 oz. ; camphor, ^ drachm ; copal, i oz ; dis- 
solve. Used to japan tin, but quick copal varnish is mostly 
used instead. 

Japanners' Copal Varnish. — Pale African copal, 7 lbs. ; 
fuse ; add clarified linseed oil, ^ gallon ; boil for 5 min- 
utes ; remove it into the open air; add boiling oil of tur- 
pentine, 3 gallons ; mix well, strain it into the can, and 
cover it up immediately. Used to varnish furniture, and 
by japanners, coachmakers, etc. Dries in 15 minutes, and 
may be polished as soon as hard. 

Tortoise-shell Japan. — This varnish is prepared by taking 
of good linseed oil i gallon, and of umber ^^2 lb., and 



JAPANNING. 185 

boiling them together until the oil becomes very brown 
and thick, when they are strained through a cloth and 
boiled again until the composition is about the consistence 
of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having prepared this var- 
nish, clean well the copper or iron plate, or vessel, that is 
to be varnished (japanned), and then lay vermilion, mixed 
with shellac varnish, or with drying oil diluted with tur- 
pentine, very thinly on the places intended to imitate the 
clear parts of the tortoise shell. When the vermilion is 
dry, brush over the whole with the above umber varnish, 
diluted to a due consistence, with turpentine, and when it 
is set and firm, it must be put into a stove and undergo a 
strong heat for a long time — even two weeks will not hurt 
it. This is the ground for those beautiful snuff-boxes and 
tea trays which are so much admired, and those grounds 
can be decorated with all kinds of paintings that fancy 
may suggest, and the work is all the better to be finished 
in an annealing oven. 

Painting Japan Work. — The colors to be painted are 
tempered, generally in oil, which should have at least one- 
fourth of its weight of gum sandarach, or mastic, dissolved 
in it, and it should be well diluted with turpentine, that 
the colors may be laid on thin and evenly. In some in- 
stances it does well to put on water colors or grounds of 
gold, which a skilful hand can do and manage so as to 
make the work appear as if it were embossed. These water 
colors are best prepared by means of isinglass size, mixed 
with honey or sugar candy. These colors, when laid on, 
must receive a number of upper coats of the varnish we 
have described before. 

Japanning old Tea Trays. — First clean them thoroughly 
with soap and water and a little rotten stone ; then dry 
them by wiping and exposure at the fire. Now, get some 
good copal varnish, mix it with some bronze powder, and 
apply with a brush to the denuded parts; after which set 



186 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

the tea tray in an oven at a heat of 212° or 300°, until the 
varnish is dry. Two coats will make it equal to new. 

Japa7i Finishing. — The finishing part of japanning lies 
in laying on and polishing the outer coats of varnish, which 
IS necessary in all painted or simply ground-colored japan 
work. When brightness and clearness are wanted, the 
white kind of varnish is necessary, for seed-lac varnish, 
which is the hardest and most tenacious, imparts a yellow 
tinge. A mixed varnish, we believe, is the best for this 
purpose, that is, for combining hardness and purity. Take 
then 3 oz. of seed-lac, picked very carefully from all sticks 
and dirt, washing it well with cold water, stirring it up, 
pouring it off, and continuing the process until the water 
runs off perfectly pure. Dry it and then reduce it to 
powder, and put it with a pint of alcohol into a bottle, of 
which it must occupy only two-thirds of the space. This 
mixture must be shaken well together and the bottle kept at 
a gentle heat (being corked) until tlie lac is dissolved. 
When this is the case, the clear must be poured off, and the 
remainder strained through a cloth, and all the clear, 
strained and poured, must be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. 
The manner of using this seed-lac varnish is the same as 
that before described, and a fine polishing varnish is made 
by mixing this with pure white varnish. The pieces of 
work to be varnished for finishing should be placed near a 
stove, or in a warm, dry room, and one coat should be per- 
fectly dry before the other is applied. The varnish is 
applied by proper brushes, beginning at the middle, passing 
the stroke to one end and with the other stroke from the 
middle to the other end. Great skill is necessary in laying 
on these coats of van^.ish. If possible the same place should 
never be crossed or twice j^assed over in giving one coat. 
When one coat is dry another must be laid over it, and so 
on successively for a number of coats, so that tlie coating 
shall be sufficiently thick to bear the polishing, without lay- 



VARNISHES. 187 

ing bare the surface of tlie painting or ground work beneath. 
When a sufficient number of coats are thus laid on, the work 
is fit to be polished, which, in common cases, is done with a 
rag dipped in finely powdered rotten stone ; but towards the 
end of the rubbing a little oil should be used along with the 
powder, and when the work appears fine and glossy a little 
oil must be used alone to clean off the powder and give 
the work a still brighter hue. In very fine work, French 
whiting should be used, which should be washed in water 
to remove any sand that might be in it. Pumice stone 
ground to a very fine powder is used for the first part of 
the polishing, and the finishing is done with whiting. It is 
always best to dry the varnish of all japan work by heat. 
For wood work, heat must be sparingly used, but for metals 
the varnish should be dried in an oven, also for papier- 
mache and leather. The metal will stand the greatest heat, 
and care must be taken not to darken by too high a tem- 
perature. When gold size is used in gilding for japan 
work, where it is desired not to have the gold shine, or ap- 
])ear burnished, the gold size should be used with a little of 
llie spirits of turpentine and a little oil, but when a consid- 
erable degree of lustre is wanted without burnishing and 
the preparation necessary for it, a little of the size along 
with oil alone should be used. 

VARNISHES—MISCELLANEOUS. 

Different substances are employed for making varnish, 
the object being to produce a liquid easily applied to the 
surface of cloth, paper or metal, which, when dry, will pro- 
tect it with a fine film. Gums and resins are the substances 
employed for making varnishes; they are dissolved either 
in turpentine, alcohol, or oil, in a close stone-ware, glass or 
metal vessel, exposed to a low heat, as the case may require, 
or cold. The alcohol or turpentine dissolves the gum or 
resin, and holds them in solution, and after the application 



X88 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

of the varnish, this mixture being mechanical, the moisture 
of the liquid evaporates, and the gum adheres to the article 
to which it is applied. 

The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to 
the varnish maker. Oil from fine full-grown ripe seed, when 
viewed in a vial, will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant ; it 
is mellow and sweet to the taste, has very little smell, is 
specifically lighter than impure oil, and, when clarified, 
dries quickly and firmly, and does not materially change 
the color of the varnish when made, but appears limpid and 
brilliant. 

T/ie following are the chief Resins employed in the manu- 
facture of Varnishes. 

A?nber. — This resin is most distinguished for durabiliiy. 
It is usually of some shade of yellow, transparent, hard and 
moderately tough. Heated in air, it fuses at about 549°; 
it burns with a clear flame, emitting a pleasant odor. 

Anime. — This is imported from the East Indies. The 
large, transparent, pale-yellow pieces, with vitreous fracture, 
are best suited for varnish. Inferior qualities are employed 
for manufacturing gold-size or japan-black. Although 
superior to amber in its capacity for drying, and equal in 
hardness, varnish made from anime deepens in color on 
exposure to air. and is very liable to crack. It is. however, 
much used for mixing with copal varnish. 

Benzoin. — This is a gum resin, but little used in var- 
nishes on account of its costliness. 

Colopho7iy. — This resin is synonymous with arcanson and 
rosin. When fhe resinous juice of Pinus sylvestris and 
other varieties is distilled, colophony remains in the retort. 
Its dark color is due to the action of the fire. Dissolved 
in linseed oil, or in turi)entine by tlie aid of heat, colo- 
phony forms a brilliant, hard, but brittle varnish. 

Copal. — This is a gum resin of immense importance to 
the varnish maker. It consists of several minor resins of 



VARNISHES. 189 

different degrees of solubility. In durability, it is only 
second to amber. When made into varnish, the better 
sorts become lighter in color by exposure to air. 

Copal is generally imported in large lumps about the size 
of potatoes. The clearest and palest are selected for what 
is called body gum ; the second best forms carriage gum ; 
whilst the residue, freed from the many impurities with 
which it is associated, constitutes the worst quality, fitted 
only for japan black or gold size. 

In alcohol, copal is but slightly soluble ; but it is said to 
become more so by reducing it to a fine powder and ex- 
posing it to atmospheric influences for twelve months. 
Boiling alcohol or spirit of turpentine, when poured upon 
fused copal, accomplishes its complete solution, provided 
the solvent be not added in too large proportions at a time. 
The addition of camphor also promotes the solubility of 
copal ; so likewise does oil of rosemary. 

Dammar,^Y\\\^ is a tasteless, inodorous, whitish resin, 
easily soluble in oils. It is not so hard as mastic, with 
which it forms a good admixture. 

Elemi. — This is a resin of a yellow color, semi-transpa- 
rent and of faint fragrance. Of the two resins which it 
contains, one is crystallizable and soluble in cold alcohol. 

Lac. — This constitutes the basis of spirit varnish. The 
resin is soluble in strong alcohol aided by heat. Its solu- 
tion in ammonia may be used as a varnish, when the articles 
coated with it are not to be exposed more than an hour or 
two at a time to water. 

Mastic. — This is a soft resin of considerable lustre. The 
two sorts in commerce are, in tears and the common mastic ; 
the former is the purer of the two. It consists of two 
resins, one of which is soluble in dilute alcohol. With oil 
of turpentine it forms a very pale varnish of great lustre, 
which flows readily and works easily. Moreover^ it can 



190 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

be readily removed by friction with the hand ; hence its 
use for delicate work of every description. 

Sandarach. — This is a pale, odorous resin, less hard than 
lac, with which it is often associated as a spirit varnish. 
It consists of three resins differing as to solubility in alco- 
hol, ether and turpentine. It forms a good pale varnish 
for light-colored woods; when required to be polished^ 
Venice turpentine is added to give it body. 

Of the solvents of these various resins little need be said. 
In the manufacture of varnishes, great care, as well as 
cleanliness, is required. The resins should be washed in 
hot water, to free them from particles of dust and dirt ; 
they should be dried and assorted according to their color, 
reserving the lightest shades for the best kinds of varnish. 

The linseed oil should be as pale colored and as well 
clarified as possible. New oil always contains mucilage, 
and more or less of foreign matters ; as these prevent the 
regular absorption of oxygen, the oil requires preliminary 
treatment. The common plan is to boil it with litharge ; 
but such <?// z'(?;v//V// is inferior to that prepared with sul- 
phate of lead. 

The best method is to rub up linseed oil with dry sul- 
phate of lead, in sufficient quantity to form a milky mixture. 
After a week's exposure to the light, and frequent shaking, 
the mucus deposits with the sulphate of lead, and leaves 
the oil perfectly clear. The precipitated slime forms a 
compact membrane over the lead, hardening to such an 
extent that the clarified oil may be readily poured off. 

Turpoitine. — This is of very extensive use. The older 
it is, the more ozonized, the better it is. Turpentine var- 
nishes dry much more readily than oil varnishes, are of a 
lighter color, more flexible and cheap. They are, however, 
neither so tough nor so durable. 

AkoJwl. — This is employed as the solvent of'sandarack 
and of lac. The stronger, cccteris panbusy the better. 



VARNISHES. 191 

Naphtha and Methylated Spirit of Wine. — These are 
used for the cheaper varnishes. Their smell is disagreeable. 
The former is, however, a better solvent of resins than 
alcohol. 

Spirit VarnisJies. — These varnislies may be readily 
colored — red, by dragon's blood ; ye/iow, by gamboge. If 
a colored varnisli is required, no account need be 
taken of the color of the resins. Lac varnish may be 
bleached by Mr. Lemming's process : — Dissolve five ounces 
of shellac in a quart of spirit of wine; boil for a few min- 
utes with ten ounces of well-burnt and recently-heated 
animal charcoal, wlien a small quantity of the solution 
should be drawn off and filtered: if not colorless, a little 
more charcoal should be added. When all tinge is re- 
moved, press the liquor througli silk, as linen absorbs more 
varnish ; and afterwards filter it through fine blotting-paper. 
Dr. Hare proceeds as follows: — Dissolve in an iron kettle 
about one part of pearlash in about eight parts of water, add 
one part of shell or seed-lac, and heat the whole to ebulli- 
tion. When the lac is dissolved, cool the solution, and im- 
pregnate it with chlorine gas till the lac is all precii)itated. 
I'he precipitate is white, but the color deepens by washing 
and consolidation. Dissolved in alcohol, lac bleached by 
ihis process yields a varnish which is as free from color as 
any copal varnish. 

One word in conclusion with reference to all spirit var- 
nishes. A damp atmosphere is sufficient to occasion a 
a milky deposit of resin, owing to the diluted spirit de- 
positing a portion: in such case the varnish is said to be 
chilled. 

Essence Varnishes. — They do not differ essentially in their 
manufacture from spirit varnishes. The polish produced by 
them is more durable, although they take a longer time to 
dry. 

Oil Varnishes. — The most durable and lustrous of var- 



192 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

nishes are composed of a mixture of resin, oil, and spirit 
of turpentine. The oils most frequently en>ployed are lin- 
seed and walnut ; the resins chiefly copal and amber. 

The drying powder of the oil having been increased by 
litharge, red lead, or by sulphate of lead, and a judicious 
selection of copal having been made, it is necessary, 
according to Booth, to bear in mind the following precau- 
tions before proceeding to the manufacture of varnish : — i. 
That oil varnish is not a solution, but an intimate mixture 
of resin in boiled oil and spirit of turpentine. 2. That the 
resin must be completely fused previous to the addition of 
the boiled or prepared oil. 3. That the oil must be heated 
from 250° to 300°. 4. That the spirit of turpentine must 
be added gradually, and in a thin stream, while the mixture 
of oil and resin is still hot. 5. That the varnish be made 
in dry weather, otherwise moisture is absorbed, and its 
transparency and drying quality impaired. 

The heating vessel must be of copper, with a riveted and 
not a soldered bottom. To promote the admixture of the 
copal with the hot oil, the copal — carefully selected, and of 
nearly uniform fusibility — is separately heated with contin- 
uous stirring over a charcoal fire. Good management is 
required to prevent the copal from burning or becoming 
even high colored. When completely fused, the heated oil 
should be gradually poured in with constant stirring. The 
exact amount of oil required must be determined by experi- 
ment. If a drop upon a plate, on cooling, assumes such a 
consistency as to be penetrated "by the nail without crack- 
ing, the mixture is complete ; but if it cracks, more oil 
must be added. 

The spirit of turpentine previously heated is added in a 
thin stream to the former mixture, care being taken to keep 
up the heat of all the parts. 

Lacquer. — This is- used for wood or brass work, and is 
also a varnish. For brass, the proportions are half a pound 



VARNISHES. 293 

of pale sliellac to one gallon of spirit of wine. It is better 
prepared without the aid of heat by simjjle and repeated 
agitation. It should then be left to clear itself, and sepa- 
rated from the thicker portions and from all impurities by 
decantation. As it darkens on exposure to light, the 
latter should be excluded. It need scarcely be said 
that the color will also be modified by that of the lac em- 
ployed. 

/. Copal Varnishes. — i. Oil of turpentine one pint. Set 
the bottle in a water bath, and add in small portions at a 
time, three ounces of powdered copal that has been pre- 
viously melted by a gentle heat, and dropped into water ; 
in a few days decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is very 
pale and durable. Used for pictures, &c. 2. Pale hard 
copal two pounds; fuse, add hot drying oil one pint, boil 
as before directed, and thin with oil of turpentine three 
pints, or as much as sufficient. Very pale. Dries hard in 
12 to 24 hours. 3. Clearest and palest African copal 
eight pounds; fuse, add hot and pale drying oil two gal- 
lons, boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with 
hot rectified oil of turpentine three gallons, and immediately 
strain into the store can. Very fine. Both the above are 
used for pictures. 4. Coarsely-powdered copal and glass, 
of each four ounces, alcohol of 90 per cent, one pint, cam- 
phor one-half ounce ; heat it in a water-bath so that the 
bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing frequently 
to stir the mixture ; when cold decant the clear. Used 
for pictures. 5. Copal melted and dropped into water 
three ounces, gum sandarach six ounces, mastic and Scio 
turpentine, of each two and one-half ounces, powdered 
glass four ounces, alcohol of 85 per cent, one quart ; dis- 
solve by a gentle heat. ^^^ for metal, chairs, &c. 

All copal varnishes are hard and durable, though less so 
than those made of amber, but they have the advantage 
over the latter of being paler. They are applied on coaches, 

13 



194 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

pictures, polislied metal, wood, and other objects requiring 
good durable varnish. 

//. Copal VdniisJi. — Hard copal, 300 parts; drying lin- 
seed or nut oil, from 12510 250 parts; oil of turpentine, 500. 
These three substances are to be put into three separate ves- 
sels ; the copal is to be fused by a somewhat sudden appli- 
cation of heat; the drying oil is to be heated to a temper- 
ature a little under ebullition, and is to be added, by small 
portions at a time, to the melted copal. V/hen this com- 
bination is made, and the heat a little abated, the oil of 
turi>entine, likewise previously heated, is to be introduced 
by degrees ; some of the volatile oil will be dissipated at 
first, but more being added, the union will take place. 
Great care must be taken to prevent the turpentine vapor 
from catching fire, which might occasion serious accidents 
to the operator. When the varnish is made and has cooled 
down to about 130 degrees Fahr., it may be strained 
through a filter, to separate the impurities and undissolved 
copal. Almost all varnish makers think it indispensable to 
combine the drying oil with the copal before adding 
the oil of turpentine, but in this they are mistaken. Boil- 
ing oil of turpentine combines very readily with fused 
copal ; and, in some cases, it would probably be preferable 
to commence the operation with it, adding it in successive 
small quantities. Indeed, the whitest copal varnish can be 
made only in this way ; for if the drying oil has been 
heated to nearly its boiling point, it becomes colored, and 
darkens the varnish. 

This varnish improves in clearness by keeping. Its con- 
sistence may be varied by varying the proportions of the 
ingredients within moderate limits. Good varnish, applied 
in summer, should become so dry in 24 hours that the dust 
will not stick to it, and so hard as not to receive an impres- 
sion from the fingers. To render it sufficiently dry and hard 



VARNISHES. 195 

for polishing, it must be subjected for several days to the 
heat of a stove. 

///. Copal VaniisJics. — i. Melt in an iron pan at a slow 
heat, copal gum powdered, 8 parts, and add balsam copaiva, 
previously warmed, 2 parts. Then remove from the fircj 
and add spirits of turpentine, also warmed beforehand, 10 
parts, to give the necessary consistence. 2. Prepared gum 
copal 10 parts, gum mastic 2 parts, finely powdered, are 
mixed with white turpentine and boiled linseed oil, of each 

1 part, at a slow heat, and with spirits of turpentine 20 
parts. 3. Prepared gum-copal 10 parts, white turpentine 

2 parts ; dissolve in spirits of turpentine. 

Gum-copal is prepared or made more soluble in spirits 
of turpentine, by melting the powdered crude gum, after- 
wards again powdering, and allowing to stand for some 
time loosely covered. 

Cabinet Varnish. — Copal, fused, 14 lbs. ; linseed oil, hot, 
I gallon ; turpentine, hot, 3 gallons. Properly boiled, 
such a varnish will dry in 10 minutes. 

Table VarnisJi. — Dammar resin, i lb. ; spirits of turpen- 
tine, 2 lbs. ; camphor, 200 grains. Digest the mixture for 
24 hours. The decanted portion is fit for immediate use. 

Common Table Varnis/i. — Oil of turpentine, i lb. ; bees' 
wax, 2 oz. ; colu])1iony, i draclnn. 

Copal ]'\irnisJi for Inside Work. — i. Pounded and oxi- 
dized copal, 24 parts; spirit of turpentine, 40 parts; 
camphor, i part.- — 2. Flexible Copal Varnish. Copal in 
powder, 16 parts; camphor, 2 |)arts ; oil of lavender, 90 
parts. 

Dissolve the camphor in the oil, heat the latter, and stir 
in the copal in successive portions until complete solution 
takes place. Thin with sufficient turpentine to make it of 
proper consistence. 

Best Body Copal Varnish for Coaeh Makers, etc. — This 
is intended for the bodv parts of coaches and other similar 



196 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPERPLATE WORKER. 

vehicles, intended for polishing. Fuse eight lbs. of fine 
African gum copal, and two gallons of clarified oil, boil it 
very slowly for four or five hours, until quite stringy, mix 
with three gallons and a half of turpentine ; strain off and 
pour it into a can. If this is too slow in drying, coach- 
makers, painters and varnish-makers have introduced to 
two pots of the preceding varnish, one made as follows : 
Eight lbs. of fine pale gum-anime, two gallons of clarified 
oil and three and a half gallons of turpentine. To be 
boiled four hours. 

Copal Polish. — Digest or shake finely powdered gum 
copal four parts, and gum camphor one part, with ether to. 
form a semi-fluid mass, and then digest with a sufficient 
quantity of alcohol. 

White Spirit Varnish. — Sandarach, 250 parts ] mastic, in 
tears, 64; elemi resin, 32; turpentine, 64; alcohol of Z^ 
per cent., 1000 parts, by measure. The turpentine is to 
be added after the resins are dissolved. This is a brilliant 
varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing. 

White Hard Spirit Varnishes. — i. Gum sandarach five 
pounds, camphor one ounce, rectified spirit 65 over proof 
two gallons, washed and dried coarsely-pounded glass two 
pounds ; proceed as in making mastic varnish. When 
strained add one quart of very pale turpentine varnish. 
Very fine. 2. Picked mastic and coarsely-ground glasS; of 
each four ounces, sandarach and pale clear Venice turpen- 
tine, of each three ounces, alcohol two pounds: as last.' 
3. Gum sandarach one pound, clear Strasburg turpentine 
six ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) three pints; dis- 
solve. 4. Mastic in tears two ounces, sandarach eight 
ounces, gum elemi one ounce, Strasburg or Scio tur})entine 
(genuine) four ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) one 
quart. Used on metals, etc. Polishes well. 

White Varnish. — i. Tender copal seven and one-half 
ounces^ camphor one ounce^ alcohol o{ 95 per cent, one 



VARNISHES. 197 

quart ; dissolve ; then add mastic two ounces, Venice tur- 
pentine one ounce ; dissolve and strain. Very white, dry- 
ing and capable of being polished when hard. Used for 
toys. 2. Sandarach eight ounces, mastic two ounces, 
Canada balsam four ounces, alcohol one quart. Used on 
paper, wood or linen. 

Soft Brilliant Varnish. — Sandarach six ounces, elemi 
(genuine) four ounces, anime one ounce, camphor one-half 
ounce, rectified spirit one quart ; as before. 

The above spirit varnishes are chiefly applied to objects 
of the toilet, work boxes, card cases, etc., but are also 
suitable for other articles, wliether of paper, wood, linen, 
or metal, that require a brilliant and quick-drying varnish. 
They mostly dry almost as soon as applied, and are usually 
hard enough to polish in 24 hours. Spirit varnishes are 
less durable and more liable to crack than oil varnishes. 

. B?'own, hard Spirit Varnishes. — i. Sandarach four ounces, 
pale seed lac two ounces, elemi (true) one ounce, alcohol 
one quart; digest with agitation till dissolved, then add 
Venice turpentine two ounces. 2. Gum sandarach three 
pounds, shellac two pounds, rectified spirit (65 over proof), 
two gallons ; dissolve ; add turpentine varnish one quart ; 
agitate well and strain. Very fine. 3. Seed lac and yel- 
low resin, of each one and one-half pounds, rectified spirit 
two gallons. 

To Prepare a Varnish for Coating Metals. — Digest one 
part of bruised copal in two parts of absolute alcohol ; but 
as this varnish dries too quickly it is preferable to take one 
part of copal, one part of oil of rosemary, and two or 
three parts of absolute alcohol.^ This gives a clear varnish 
as limpid as water. It should be applied hot, and when 
dry it will be found hard and durable. 

To Varnish Articles of Iron afid Steel. — Dissolve ten 
parts of clear grains of mastic, five parts of camphor, fif- 
teen parts of sandarach, and five of elemi, in a sufficient 



198 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WOPvKER. 

quantity of alcohol, and apply this varnish without heat. 
The articles will not only be preserved from rust, but the 
varnish will retain its transparency and the metallic brih 
liancy of the articles will not be obscured. 

Vai'nish for Iron Work. — Dissolve, in about two pounds 
of tar oil, half a pound of asphaltum, and a like quantity 
of pounded resin, mix hot in an iron kettle, care being 
taken to prevent any contact with the flame. When cold, 
the varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out-door 
wood and iron work, not for japanning leather or cloth. 

Black Varnish for Iron Work. — Asphaltum forty-eight 
pounds; fuse; add boiled oil ten gallons, red lead and 
litharge, of each seven pounds, dried and powdered white 
copperas three pounds ; boil for two hours ; then add dark 
gmii amber (fused) eight pounds, hot linseed oil two gal- 
lons ; boil for two hours longer, or till a little of the mass, 
Avhen cooled, may be rolled into pills ; then withdraw the 
heat, and afterwards thin down with oil of turi)entine thirty 
gallons. Used for the iron work of carriages and otlier 
nice pur{)Oses. 

Bronze Varnish for Statuary. — Cut best hard soap fifty 
parts into fine shavings ; dissolve in boiling water two 
parts, to which add the solution of blue vitriol fifteen parts, 
in pure water sixty parts. Wash the copi)er-soap with water, 
dry it at a very slow heat, and dissolve it in spirits of tur- 
pentine. 

Amber Varnishes. — i. Amber one pound, pale boiled 
oil ten ounces, turpentine one pint. Render the amber, 
placed in an iron pot, semi-liquid by heat ; tlien add the 
oil, mix, remove it from the fire, and wlien cooled a little, 
stir in the turpentine. 2. To the amber, melted as above, 
add two ounces of shellac, and proceed as before. 

This varnish is rather dark, but remarkably tough. The 
first formula is the best. It is used for the same purposes as 
copal varnish, and forms an excellent article for covering 



VARNISHES, 190 

Avood, or any other substance not of a white or paie color. 
It dries well, and is very hard and durable. 

Amber Varnish, Black. — Amber one pound, boiled oil 
one-half pint, powdered asphaltum, six ounces, oil of tur- 
pentine one pint. Melt the amber, as before described, 
then add the asphaltum, previously mixed with the cold 
oil, and afterwards heated very hot ; mix well, remove the 
vessel from the fire, and when cooled a little, add the tur- 
pentine, also made warm. 

Each of the above varnishes should be reduced to a 
proper consistence with more turpentine if required. The 
last formula produces the beautiful black varnish used by the 
coachmakers. Some manufacturers omit the whole or part 
of the asphaltum, and use the same quantity of clear black 
rosin instead, in wliich case the color is brought up by 
lampblack reduced to an impalpable powder, or previously 
ground very fine with a little boiled oil. The varnish made 
in this way lacks, how^ever, that richness, brilliancy, and 
depth of blackness imparted by asphaltum. 

Amber Varnishes. — i. {Pale.) Amber pale and transpa- 
rent six pounds; fuse; add hot clarified linseed oil two 
gallons; boil till.it strings strongly, cool a little and add 
oil of turpentine four gallons. Pale as copal varnish ; soon 
becomes very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes; 
but requires time before it is fit for polishing. When 
wanted to dry and harden more quickly, '"drying" oil may 
be substituted for linseed, or '' dryers ' ' may be added during 
the boiling. 2. Amber one pound ; melt, add Scio tur- 
pentine one-half pound, transparent white resin two ounces, 
hot linseed oil one pint, and afterwards oil of turpentine 
as much as sufificient ; as above. Very tough. 3. {Hard.) 
Melted amber four ounces, hot boiled oil one quart ; as 
before. 4. {Pale.) Very pale and transparent amber four 
ounces, clarified linseed oil and oil of turpentine, of each 
one pint ; as before. 



200 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER 

Amber varnish is suited for all purposes, where a very hard 
and durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is su- 
perior to copal varnish, and is often mixed with the latter 
to increase its hardness and durability. 

Black Varnish. — Heat to boiling linseed oil, varnish ten 
parts, with burnt amber two parts, and powdered asphaltum 
one part, and w^hen cooled, dilute to the required consist- 
ence, with spirits of turpentine. 

Varnish fo?- certain pai'ts of Carriages. — Sandarach 190 
parts, pale shellac 95, resin 125, turpentine 190, alcohol 
(at 85 per cent.) 1000 parts, by measure. 

Coach Varnish. — Mix shellac sixteen parts, white turpen- 
tine three parts, lampblack a sufficient quantity, and digest 
with alcohol ninety parts, oil of lavender four parts. 

Mahogany Varnish. — Sorted gum anime eight pounds, 
clarified oil three gallons, litharge and powdered dried 
sugar of lead, of each one-fourth pound ; boil till it strings 
well, then cool a little, thin with oil of turpentine five and 
one-half gallons, and strain. 

Varnish for Cabinetmakers. — Pale shellac 750 parts, mas- 
tic 64, alcohol (of 90 per cent.) 1000 parts by measure. 
The solution is made in the cold, with the aid of frequent 
stirring. It is always muddy, and is employed without 
being filtered. With the same resins and proof spirit a 
varnish is made for bookbinders, for applying to morocco 
leather. 

Cement Varnish for water-tight Luti?tg. — White turpen- 
tine fourteen parts, shellac eighteen parts, resin six parts, 
digest with alcohol eighty parts. 

The Varnish of Watin for Gilded Articles. — Gum lac 
(in grains) 125 parts, gamboge 125, dragon's blood 125, 
annotto 125, saffron 32. Each resin must be dissolved in 
1000 parts (by measure) of alcohol of 90 per cent. ; two 
separate tinctures must be made with the dragon's blood 
and annotto, in 1000 parts of such alcohol; and a proper 



VAKNISHES. 201 

portion of each should be added to the varnish- — according 
to the shade of golden color wanted. 

Cheap Oak Varm'sk.—Clesir pale resin three and one- 
half pounds, oil of turpentine one gallon ; dissolve. It may 
be colored darker by adding a little fine lampblack. 

Varnish for Woodwork. — Powdered gum sandarach eight 
parts, gum mastic two parts, seed lac eight parts, and digest 
in a warm place for some days with alcohol twenty-four 
parts ; and finally, dilute with sufficient alcohol to the re- 
quired consistence. 

Dark Varnish for Light Woodwork, — Pound up and di- 
gest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach thirty-two parts, 
gum mastic (juniper) eight parts, gum elemi eight parts, 
dragon's blood four parts, annotto one part, with white 
turpentine sixteen parts, and alcohol 256 ; dilute with 
alcohol if required. 

Varnishfor Instruments. — Digest seed lac one part, with 
alcohol seven parts, and filter. 

Varnish for the Wood Toys of Spa. — Tender copal, 75 
parts; mastic, 12.5 ; Venice turpentine, 6.5; alcohol (of 
95 per cent.), 100 parts (by measure, water ounces, for ex- 
ample, if the other parts be taken in ounces). The alcohol 
must be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a 
little oil of lavender or camphor, if thought fit; and the 
solution being passed through a linen cloth, the mastic 
must be introduced. After it is dissolved, the Venice tur- 
pentine, previously melted in a water bath, should be 
added ; the lower the temperature at "which these opera- 
tions are carried on, the more beautiful will the varnish be. 
This varnish ought to be very white, very drying, and ca- 
pable of being smoothed with pumice stone and polished. 

Varnishes for Fii7'7nture. — The simplest, and perhaps the 
best, is the solution of shellac only ; but many add gums 
and sandarach, mastic, copal, arabic, benzoin, etc., from 
the idea that they contribute to the effect. Gum arabic is 



202 TIX, SHEET-IEOX AND COPPi:r.-PLATE WORKEPv. 

certainly never required if the solvent be pure, because it 
is insoluble in either rectified spirit or rectified wood naph- 
tha, the menstrua employed in dissolving the gums. As 
spirit is seldom used on account of its expense, most of the 
following are mentioned as solutions in naphtha, but spirit 
can be substituted when thought proper. 

I. Shellac one and a half pounds, naphtha one gallon; 
dissolve, and it is ready without filtering. 2= Shellac 
twelve ounces, copal three ounces (or an equivalent of var- 
nish); dissolve in one gallon of naphtlia. 3. Shellac one 
and a half pounds, seed lac and sandarach each four ounces, 
mastic two ounces, rectified spirit one gallon; dissolve. 
4. Shellac two pounds, benzoin four ounces, spirit one 
gallon. 5. Shellac ten ounces, seed lac, sandarach and 
copal varnish, of each, six ounces : benzoin three ounces, 
naphtha one gallon. 

To darken polish, benzoin and dragon's blood are used, 
turmeric and other coloring matters are also added ; and 
to make it lighter it is necessary to use bleached lac, though 
some endeavor to give this effect by adding oxalic acid to 
the ingredients ; however, it, like gum arable, is insoluble 
in rectified spirit or naphtha. For all ordinary purposes the 
first formula is best and least troublesome, while the result 
obtained is equal to any other. 

To Fre?ich Polish. — The wood must be placed level and sand- 
]nii)ered until it is quite smooth, otherwise it will not polish. 
Then provide a rubber of clotli. list or sponge; wrap it in 
a soft rag. so as to leave a handle at the back for your 
liand ; shake the bottle against tlie rubber, and in the mid- 
dle of the varnish on the rag place with your finger a little 
raw linseed oil. Now commence rubbing, in small circular 
strokes, and continue until the pores are filled, charging 
the rubber witli varnish and oil as required, until the whole 
wood has had one coat. When dry repeat the process once 
or twice until the surface appears even and fine, between 



VARNISHES. 203 

each coat using fine sandpaper to smooth down all irregu- 
larities. Lastly, use a clean rubber with a little strong 
alcohol only, which will remove the oil and the cloudiness 
it causes ; when the work will be complete. 

Furniture Polishes. — New wood is often French-polished. 
Or the following may be tried : 

Melt three or four pieces of sandarach, each the size of 
a walnut ; add one pint of boiled oil, and boil together 
for one hour. While cooling add one drachm of Venice 
turpentine, and if too thick a little oil of turpentine also. 
Apply this all over the furniture, and after some hours rub 
it off; rub the furniture daily, without applying fresh var- 
nish, except about once in two months. Water does not 
injure this polish, and any stain or scratch may be again 
covered, which cannot be done with French polish. 

Furniture Gloss. — To give a gloss to household furniture 
various compositions are used, known as wax, polish, creams,, 
pastes, oils, etc. The following are some of the formulae used : 

Furniture Cream. — Beeswax one pound, soaj) four ounces, 
]^earlash two ounces, soft water one gallon ; boil together 
until mixed. 

Furniture Oils. — i. Acetic acid two drachms, oil of lav- 
ender one-half drachm, rectified spirit one drachm, linseed 
oil four ounces. 2. Linseed oil one pint, alkanet root two 
ounces ; heat, strain and add lac varnish one ounce. 3. 
Linseed oil one pint, rectified spirit two ounces, butter of 
antimony four ounces. 

Furniture Pastes. — i. Beeswax, spirit of turpentine and 
linseed oil, equal parts; melt and cool. 2. Beeswax four 
ounces, turpentine ten ounces, alkanet root to color; melt 
and strain. 3. Beeswax one pound, linseed oil five ounces, 
alkanet root one-half ounce ; melt, add five ounces of tur- 
pentine, strain and cool. 4. Beeswax four ounces, resin 
one ounce, oil of turpentine two ounces, Venetian red to 
color. 



204 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Etching Va?-mshes. — i. White wax two ounces, black 
and Burgundy pitch, of each one-half ounce ; melt to- 
gether ; add, by degrees, powdered asphaltum two ounces, 
and boil till a drop taken out on a plate will break when 
cold by being bent double two or three times between the 
fingers; it must then be poured into warm water and made 
into small balls for use. 2. {^Hard Varnish.^ Linseed oil 
and mastic, of each four ounces; melt together. 3. {Soft 
Varnish.^^oil linseed oil four ounces, gum benzoin and white 
wax, each one-half ounce ; reduced by boiling to two-thirds. 

Vaimish for Engravings, Maps, etc. — Digest gum sanda- 
rach twenty parts, gum mastic eight parts, camphor one 
part, with alcohol forty-eight parts. The map or engrav- 
ing must previously receive one or two coats of gelatine. 

Vai'nish to fix Engravings or Lithographs on Wood. — For 
fixing engravings or lithographs upon wood, a varnish 
called mordant is used in France, wliich differs from others 
chiefly in containing more Venice turpentine, to make it 
sticky. It consists of sandarach 250 parts, mastic in tears 
64, rosin 125, Venice turpentine 250, alcohol 1000 parts 
(by measure). 

Varnishes for Oil Paintings and Lithographs. — i. Dex- 
trine two parts, alcohol one part, water six parts. 2. Var- 
nish for drawings and lithographs: dextrine two parts, 
alcohol one-half part, water two parts. These should be 
prepared previously with two or three coats of thin starch, 
or rice, boiled and strained through a clotli. 

Va7'7iish for Oil Paintings. — Digest at a slow heat gum 
sandarach two parts, gum mastic four parts, balsam copaiba 
two parts, white turpentine tliree parts, with spirits of tur- 
pentine four parts, alcohol (95 per cent.") 50 to 56 parts. 

Beautiful Varnish for Paintings and Pictures.— )^oxity 
one pint, the white of two dozen fresh hens' eggs, one 
ounce of good clean isinglass, twenty grains of hydrate of 
potassium, one-half ounce of chloride of sodium. Mix to- 



VARNISHES. 205 

gether over a gentle heat of eighty or ninety degrees Fahr- 
enheit. Be careful not to let the mixture remain long 
enough to coagulate the albumen of the eggs. Stir the 
mixture thoroughly, then bottle. It is to be applied as 
follows : one tablespoon ful of the varnish added to half a 
tablespoonful of good oil of turpentine ; then spread on 
the picture as soon as mixed. 

Milk of Wax. — Milk of wax is a valuable varnish, which 
miay be prepared as follows : Melt in a porcelain capsule a 
certain quantity of white wax, and add to it, while in fu- 
sion, an equal quantity of spirit of wine (of specific gravity 
0.830) ; stir the mixture and pour it upon a large porphyry 
slab. The granular mass is to be converted into a paste by 
the muller, with the addition, from time to time, of a little 
alcohol ; and as soon as it appears to be smooth and homo- 
geneous, water is to be introduced in small quantities suc- 
cessively, to the amount of four times the weight of the 
wax. This emulsion is to be then passed through canvas, 
in order to separate such particles as may be imperfectly 
incorporated. The milk of wax, thus prepared, may be 
spread with a smooth brush upon the surface of a painting, 
allowed to dry, and then fused by passing a hot iron 
over its surface. When cold, it is to be rubbed with 
a linen cloth to bring out the lustre. It is to the un- 
changeable quality of an encaustic of this nature that the 
ancient paintings upon the walls of Herculaneum and Pom- 
peii owe their freshness at the present day. 

Crystal Vai'nishes. — i. Genuine pale Canada balsam and 
rectified oil of turpentine equal parts ; mix, place the bottle 
in warm water, agitate well, set it aside in a moderately 
warm place, and in a week pour off the clear. Used for 
maps, prints, drawings and other articles of paper, and 
also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings. 
2.. Mastic three ounces,^ alcohol one pint; dissolve. Used 
to fix pencil drawings. 



206 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Italian J'arnisJits. — i. Boil Scio turpentine till brittle ; 
powder, and dissolve in oil of turpentine. 2. Canada 
balsam and clear white resin, of each six ounces, oil of 
turpentine one quart ; dissolve. 6 j-(?^/ for prints, etc.^ 

She, or J'ay)iis]i^ for Printers, etc. — Best pale glue and 
wliite curd soap, of each 4 ounces : hot water 3 pints ; dis- 
solve, tlien add powdered alum 2 ounces. Used to size 
l)rints and pictures before coloring them. 

Mastic Varnis/ics. — i. 'Fine.') Very pale and picked gum 
mastic five pounds, glass pounded as small as barley, and 
well washed and dried, two and one-half pounds, rectified 
turpentine two gallons; ixit tiiem into a clean tour gallon 
stone or tin bottle, bung down securely, and keep rolling it 
backwards and torwards pretty smartly on a counter or any 
other solid place for at least four hours ; when, if the gum 
is all dissolved, the varnish may be decanted, strained 
through muslin into another bottle, and allowed to settle. 
It should be kept tor six or nine months bet'ore use. as it 
thereby gets both touglier and clearer, 2. (Second Quality.) 
Alastic eight pounds, turpentine four gallons: dissolve by a 
gentle heat, and add pale turpentine varnish one-half 
gallon. 3. Gum mastic six ounces, oil of turpentine one 
(juart ; dissolve. 

Mastic varnish is used for pictures, etc. \ when good, it 
is tough, hard, brilliant, and colorless. Should it get 
'''chilled,'" one pound of well- washed siliceous sand should 
be made moderately hot, and added to each gallon, which 
must then be well agitated for five minutes, and afterwards 
allowed to settle. 

India Rubber Varnishes. — i. Cut up one pound of India 
rubber into small pieces and diffuse in half a pound of sul- 
I'huric ether, which is done by digesting in a glass flask on 
a sand bath. Then add one pound pale linseed oil varnish, 
previously heated; and after settling, one pound of oil of 



VARNISHES. 20r 

turpentine, also heated beforehand. Filter, while yet 
warm, into bottles. Dries slowly. 

2. Two ounces India rubber finely divided and digested 
in the same way, with a quarter of a pound of camphene, 
and half an ounce of naphtha or benzole. When dissolved 
add one ounce of copal varnish, which renders it more 
durable. Principally for gilding. 

3. In a wide-mouthed glass bottle, digest two ounces of 
India rubber in fine shavings, with one pound of oil of 
turpentine, during two days, without shaking; then stir up 
with a wooden spatula. Add another pound of oil of 
turpentine, and digest, with frequent agitation, until all is 
dissolved. Then mix a pound and a half of this solution 
with two pounds of very white copal-oil varnish, and a 
pound and a half of well boiled linseed oil ; shake and 
digest in a sand bath, until they have united into a good 
varnish. — For morocco leather. 

4. Four ounces India rubber in fine shavings are dissolved 
in a covered jar by means of a sand bath, in two pounds of 
crude benzole, and then mixed with tour pounds of hot lin- 
seed oil varnish, and half a pound of oil of turpentine. 
Dries very well. 

5. Flexible Varnish. — Melt one pound of rosin, and add 
gradually half a pound of India rubber in very fine shavings, 
and stir until cold. Then heat again, slowly, add one 
pound of linseed oil varnish, previously heated, and 
then filter. 

6. Another. — Dissolve one pound of gum dammar, and a 
half pound of India rubber, in very small pieces, in one 
pound of oil of turpentine, by means of a water bath. Add 
one pound of hot oil varnish and filter. 

7. India rubber in small pieces, washed and dried, is 
fused for three hours in a close vessel, on a gradually heated 
sand bath. On removing from the sand bath, open the 
vessel and stir for ten minutes, then close again, and 



208 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

repeat the fusion on the following day, until small globules 
appear on the surface. Strain through a wire sieve. 

8. Varnish for Waterproof Goods. — Let a quarter of a 
pound of India rubber, in small pieces, soften in a half 
pound of oil of turpentine, then add two pounds of boiled 
oil, and let the whole boil for two hours over a slow coal 
fire. When dissolved, add again six pounds of boiled lin- 
seed oil and one pound of litharge, and boil until an even 
liquid is obtained. It is applied warm, 

9. Gutta Percha Varnish. — Clean a quarter of a pound 
of gutta percha from adhering impurities in warm water, 
dry well, dissolve in one pound of rectified rosin oil, and 
add two pounds of linseed oil varnish, boiling hot. Very 
suitable to prevent metals from oxidation. 

Black Varnish for Harness. — Digest shellac twelve parts, 
white turpentine five parts, gum sandarach two parts, lamp- 
black one part, with spirits of turpentine four parts, alcohol 
ninety-six parts. 

Boiled Oil or Linseed-Oil 1'arnisli. — Boil linseed oil 
sixty parts, with litharge two parts, and white vitriol one 
part, each finely powdered, until all water is evaporated. 
Then set by. 

Dammar Varnish. — Gum dammar ten parts, gum san- 
darach five parts, gum mastic one part ; digest at a low heat, 
occasionally shaking, with spirits of turpentine twenty 
parts. Finally, add more spirits of turpentine to give the 
consistence of syrup. 

Coni7tion Varnish. — Digest shellac one part, with alcohol 
seven or eight parts. 

Waterproof Varnishes. — Take one pound of flowers of 
sulphur and one gallon of linseed oil, and boil them to- 
gether until they are thoroughly combined. This forms a 
good varnish for waterproofing textile fabrics. Another is 
made with four pounds oxide of lead, two pounds of lamp- 
black, five ounces of sulpliur, and ten pounds of India rub 



COPPER-ZINC ALLOYS. 



225 



oreide, etc.), which are prepared for certain purposes. The 
composition of these alloys is given below. 

The color of copper-zinc alloys varies according to the 
content of zinc, as shown in the following table : 
Color of Copper-zinc Alloys. 



Content 


u 


Content 


C 


of 


"o 


of 


"o 


Zinc, 


U 


Zinc. 


U 


5 per cent... . 


Red. 


35 per cent... 


Deep-yellow. 


lO " .... 


Red-brownish. 


38 


' ... 


Deep-yellow. 


i6 " .... 


Red-yellow. 


41 


' . , , 


Reddish-yellow, 


20 " . . . . 


Reddish-yellow. 


50 


»• 


Golden-yellow. 


22 ♦* 


Reddish-yellow. 


60 


' . . . 


Bismuth-gray, 


25 " . . . . 


Pale-yellow, 


70 


' 


Antimony-gray. 


27 " . . . . 


Yellow. 


80 


' . . . . 


Zinc-gray, 


30 " .. . 


Yellow. 


90 " . . , 


Zinc-gray. 



Co7nposition of Various Copper-zinc Alloys. 



Name. 



Tombac, English 

Tombac, Nuremberg., . . . 

Chrysochalk 

Tombac, resembling gold,.. 

Tombac, for buttons 

Pinchbeck , , 

Oreide, resembling gold 

Talmi-gold* r 

Mannheim gold, or similor. 
Muntz-metal or yellow-metal 
Aich, or sterro-metal, malle 

able in the heat 

Chrysorin 

Sterling-metal 

Prince-metal or Bristol -metal 
Mosaic gold 







(U 









G 


u 


N 


86,4 


1.3-6 


84.6 


154 


90 


7-9 


89.97 


9.96 


99- 1 5 


0.85 


936 


6.4 


90 


10 


86.4 


12.2 


89.44 


9-93 


60 


40 


60 


.38.2 


72 


28 


66,2 


ZZ"^ 


75-5 


24-5 


65.3 


34-7 

! 



0,05 



I.I 

0.62 



1,6 



o 2 



0.3 iron. 

1,8 iron. 
0,7 iron. 



* Genuine Talmi-gold consists of plated 
about I per cent of gold. 
15 



sheet-tombac : it contains 



226 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Alloys of Copper and Tin. — Bronze is an alloy of cop- 
per and tin, with or without the addition of other 
metals, it being generally composed of 73 to 92 per cent, 
of copper, and 6.7 to 26.7 per cent, of tin. It is used for 
statues, ornamentations, etc. By quenching in cold water 
bronze becomes ductile. By frequent melting and subse- 
quent slow cooling the tin liquates. 

Gun-fnefai contains on an average 90 to 91 per cent, of 
copper and 9 to 10 per cent, of tin, and sometimes a small 
quantity of lead and zinc. In cooling the melted alloy, 
liquation takes place, a more readily fluid, very hard alloy, 
richer in tin, separating from a tougher alloy, poorer in 
tin. This inclination of the alloy towards liquation is very 
injurious in casting. 

Steel-bronze or Uchatius-hronze contains 8 per cent, of 
tin, and ischiefly used for ordnance. In casting, a cop])er 
rod about i^ inches in diameter is set as a core in the centre 
of the thick iron mould. This conductor serves as a con- 
ductor of heat, the same as the chill in chilled castings, 
and is later on removed by drilling. The alloy is crystal- 
line and has a golden -yellow color. To increase the 
strength, steel bolts varying in diameter from 0.39 to 1.95 
inch are forced into the bored barrel by means of a hy- 
draulic press. 

Bell-metal consists on an average of 78 per cent, copper 
and 22 per cent. tin. 

Speculum-metal contains on an average 30 to 35 per cent, 
tin, and 64 to 69 per cent, copper. To increase the white 
color, a small quantity of arsenic or antimony is some- 
times added. 

Art-bronze, as at present used for monuments, etc., con- 
tains on an average ^d.d per cent, of copper, d.^ per cent, 
of tin, 2i-Z P^J* cent, of lead and ^.-^ per cent, of zinc. 
By the action of the air the bronze becomes in time 
coated with patina. 



ALLOYS. 227 

Phosphor-bronze consists of about 90 per cent, of cop- 
per, 9 per cent, of tin, and from 0.5 to 0.75 per cent, of 
phospliorus. With a content of over 5 per cent, of phos- 
phorus the alloy acquires a color similar to gold. 
The melted metal is very thinly fluid and fills the mould 
well. By changing the proportions of the constituents the 
alloy acquires different properties. It can be made as soft 
as copper, as tenacious as iron, and as hard as steel. The 
composition of alloys intended for rolling and drawing 
processes differs from that of alloys for castings. For arti- 
cles requiring strength, ductility and durability, phosphor- 
bronze is superior to gun metal and brass. It does not 
become crystalline by shocks, nor does it break when re- 
peatedly bent. It is employed for many purposes, chiefly 
for wire, tubes, art castings, ships' screws, cylinders, valves, 
bearings, and as anti-friction metal. 

Silicon bronze is a combination of copper with silicon. 
Its breaking strength is as great as that of phosphor-bronze, 
and it possesses besides greater i)ower of conducting elec- 
tricity. It is principally used for telephone and telegraph 
wires, the composition of wires as manufactured by Lazare 
Weilers, of Angouleme, France, being as follows : 

Silicon telephone wire, A : Copper, 99.94 per cent. ; tin, 
0.03; silicon, 0.02 : iron, a trace. 

Silicon telegraph wire, A : Copper, 97.12 per cent. ; tin, 
1. 14; silicon, 0.05; zinc, 1.62; iron, a trace. 

Manganese bronze is prepared by addition of ferro-man- 
ganese either to copper alone or to copper and zinc, or, 
finally, to copper, zinc and tin. The Bronze Company, 
in England, manufactures five varieties : In quality I, the 
zinc added to the copper preponderates considerably over 
the tin ; quality II very much resembles the mixture of 
quality I, the principal difference JDeing that the materials 
are melted in the crucible. Quality III is made of copper 
and tin in the proportion customary for gun metal {^x to 



228 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPEK-PLATE WORKER. 

82 parts of copper, ry to 18 of tin), to which a quantity 
of ferro-manganese is added. 

Delta metal is an alloy of zinc, iron and copper, to which 
during fusing phosphorus and, according to the desired 
properties, tin, manganese and lead are added. It has the 
color of a gold-silver alloy, and can be worked cold as well 
as warm ; it is not weldable, but with some care can be sol- 
dered, and does not rust. On account of its great strength 
it is used as a substitute for steel in torpedoes, bicycles, 
ships' cables, in the construction of steam vessels, etc. 
The following table shows some compositions of Delta 
metal : 





Cast, 
per cent. 


Wrought, 
per cent. 


Rolled, 
per cent. 


Hot 

Punched, 
per cent. 


Copper 

Lead.., 

Iron 


55-94 
0.72 
0.87 
0.81 
41.61 
trace. 
0.013 


55.80 
1.82 
1.28 
0.96 
40.07 
trace. 

O.OII 


55.83 
0.76 
0.86 
1.38 

41.41 
0.06 
trace. 


54.22 
1. 10 
0.99 
1.09 

42.25 
0.16 
0.02 


]\Ianffanese 


Zinc .... 

Nickel 

Phosphorus 




99.963 


99.941 


100.29 


99.83 



6'/^^;wV/ consists of copper and nickel, to which, accord- 
ing to the purpose for w^hich it is intended, zinc, tin and 
lead are added. The alloy is very white, lustrous, fine- 
grained and of great strength ; it is employed as a substi- 
tute for gun metal and brass where lustrous color and polish 
are required. 

Cobalt bronze is still more lustrous than silveroid, but 
also more expensive. The alloy contains only a small 
quantitv oi cobalt. On accou-nt of its taking a very fine 



ALLOYS. 229 

polish, and its hardness and strength, it is used in the 
manufacture of fine ornamental articles and instruments, 

Aluminium bronze is an alloy of aluminium and copper. 
It comes into commerce in various qualities, the usual alloys 
being those containing i, 2, 5, 7.5 and 10 per cent, of 
aluminium. The 5 per cent, bronze is golden in color, 
polishes well, casts beautifully, is very malleable cold or 
hot, and has great strength, especially after hammering. 
The 7.5 per cent, bronze has a peculiar greenish-gold color> 
which makes it very suitable for decoration. All these 
good qualities are possessed by the 10 per cent, bronze. 
It is bright-golden, keeps its polish in the air, may be 
easily engraved, shows a greater elasticity than steel, and 
can be soldered with hard solder. 

Aluminium bronze is, in every respect, considered the 
best bronze yet known. Its high cost alone prevents its 
extensive use, but since tlie perfection of the reduction of 
aluminium by electric furnaces, the cost of manufacture has 
been greatly reduced, and promises to be still lower in the 
near future. For making small quantities of aluminium 
bronze the following directions are given : Melt the copper 
in a plumbago crucible, and heat it somewhat hotter than 
its melting-point. When quite fluid and the surface clean, 
sticks of aluminium of a suitable size are taken in tongs 
and pushed down under the surface, thus protecting the 
aluminium from oxidation. The first effect is necessarily 
to chill the copper more or less in contact with the alumin- 
ium ; but if the copper was at a good heat to start with, 
the chilled part is speedily dissolved and the aluminium 
attacked. The chemical action of the aluminium is then 
bhown by a rise of temperature which may even reach a 
white heat. Considerable commotion may take place at 
first, but this gradually subsides. When the required 
amount of alumin'um has been introduced, the bronze is 
let s-and for a few minutes, and then well stirred, taking 



230 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

care not to rub or scrape the sides of the crucible. By the 
stirring, the slag — which commences to rise even during 
the alloying — is brought almost entirely to the surface. 
The crucible is then taken out of the furnace, the slag re- 
moved with a skimmer, the melted metal again stirred to 
bring up what little slag still remains in it, and is then 
ready for casting. It is very injurious to leave it longer in 
the fire than is absolutely necessary. No flux is necessary, 
the bronze needing only to be covered witli charcoal pow- 
der. The particular point to be attended to in melting 
these bronzes is to handle as quickly as possible when once 
melted. As with ordinary brass and bronze, two or three 
remeltings are needed before the combination of the metal 
appears to be perfect and the bronze takes on its best qual- 
ities. 

Alloys of Q^pper, Zinc ami Nickel, German Silver^ Ar- 
gentan or Fakfong. — The composition of German silver 
varies within the following limits: Copper, 50 to 66 per 
cent.; zinc, 19 to 31 ; nickel, 13 to 18.5. 

a. Ordinary German Silver : Copper, 8 parts ; zinc, 
3.5; nickel, 2; yellow, used for ordinary articles, wire, 
etc. 

b. While German Silver : Copper, 8 ; zinc, 3.5 ; nickel, 
3 ; color, white. 

c. Electrum : Copper, 8; zinc, 3.5; nickel, 4; takes a 
very high polish and very much resembles silver. 

d. TutenagXPakfong) : Copper, 8 ; zinc, 6.5 ; nickel, 3. 
German silver, being less attacked by acid fluids than 

brass or copper, is much used for forks and spoons, and 
other household utensils. Tested by the touchstone, German 
silver can only be distinguished from genuine silver by its 
streak being more rapidly dissolved on moistening witii 
nitric acid. 

Britannia Metal is an alloy of tin 65 to 97 per cent., 
antimony i to 24, copper i to 5. It is of a silver- white 



ALLOYS. 



231 



color and is used for coffee-pots, tea-pots, etc. By polish- 
ing, the alloy acquires great lustre. It can be rolled out 
into thin sheets, tarnishes but slightly on exposure to the 
air, and is less attacked by organic acids than tin. The 
melting-point of an alloy witli lo per cent, antimony is 
456.8° Fahr., and with 18 per cent, antimony 482° F. Its 
specific gravity is the higher the greater the content of tin, 
an alloy of 97.9 per cent, tin and 2.1 per cent, antimony 
having a specific gravity of 7.279, and one of 74 per cent. 
tin and 26 per cent, antimony only one of 7.100. 

Composition of Various Kinds of Britannia Metal. 







Contents in per cent. 






Tin. 


Antimony. 


Copper. 


Zinc . 


Britannia sheet 


92.0 

91-5 
88.4 
90.71 

93-7 


6 
7 

8.7 
9.20 

3-8 


2 
1.4 

2.9 
0.09 

-5 


. 


Britannia sheet (Birmingham) 
Bricannia metal, for spoons. . 

Britannia metal, cast 

Britannia metal, for turning.. 


2.9 



Readily Fusible Alloys. 





■5 


H-1 


E 
H 


5 

6 


Melting-point, 
degrees 
Fahr. 


Rose's metal 


. 2 

7 

II 


2 

6 


I 

6 

2 

■ 
5 


2 

4 


200 6 


Rose's alloy, according to 
W. Spring .....#.. 

Wood's alloy, according to 
W. Spring 

Lipowitz's alloy, according 
to W. Spring .... 


.94.3 

149 to 1-58 
176 to 185 



232 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Alloys of the Noble Metals. — Gold is alloyed with cop- 
per or silver, or with both metals. Stiver is always alloyed 
with copper. 

Various Alloys. — Copper and silver, in equal parts, WMth 
2 per cent, of arsenic, form an alloy similar to silver, with 
the exception of being a little harder, although of almost 
equal tenacity and malleability. 

Antimony imparts a beautiful red color to copper, vary- 
ing from a rose-red where much antimony is added, to a 
crimson or violent tinge with smaller quantities of anti- 
mony. 

Yellow Brass for Turning. — Copper, 20 lbs. ; zinc, 10 
lbs. j lead, from i to 5 oz. Put in the lead last, before 
pouring out. 

Red Brass for Turning. — Copper, 24 lbs. ; zinc, 5 lbs.; 
lead, 8 oz. Put in the lead last, before pouring out. Or, 
copper, 32 lbs. ; zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead, i lb. 

Red Brass to Turn Freely. — Copper, 160 lbs. ; zinc, 
150 lbs. ; lead, 10 lbs. ; antimony, 44 oz. 

Best Red Brass for Fine Casii7igs. — Copper, 24 lbs. ; 
zinc, 5 lbs. ; bismuth, i oz. Put in the bismuth last, be- 
fore pouring out. 

Rolled Brass. — Copper, 32; zinc, 10; tin, 1.5. 

Hard Brass for Casting. — Copper, 25 ; zinc, 2 ; tin, 4.5. 

Bell Metal. — Fine : Copper, 71 ; tin, 26; zinc, 2 ; iron, 
I. For large bells : Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, 2c to 25 lbs. 
For small bells : Copper, 3 lbs. ; tin, i lb. 

For Bells of Clocks. — Copper, 72 parts; tin, 26.56; 
iron, 1.44. 

For Jourfial Boxes. — Copper, 24 lbs. ; tin, 24 lbs. ; an- 
timony, 8 lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the tin, 
and lastly the antimony. It should fi^ be run into ingots, 
then melted and cast in the required form. AitotJur mix- 
ture is as follows ; Copper, 10 lbs. ; tin, i lb. ; zinc, 10 oz. 

Bearing Metals for Loco??iotives. — i. Copper, ^6 parts; 



ALLOYS. 



233 



tin, 14. 2. Copper, 85.25 parts; tin, 127.5 > ^inc, 2. 3. 
Copper, 80 parts; tin, 16; lead, 2; antimony, 2.^ 

Brasses /or Locomotive Side-rods. — Copper, 6 lbs.; tin, 
I lb.; to every 100 lbs. of this mixture add one-half lb. 
each of zinc and lead. 

Brasses for Locomotive Driving- boxes. — The same as for 
side-rod brasses, though some prefer harder brasses, and 
call for 10 lbs of copper, 2 of tin, and i lb. each of zinc 
and lead. 

Queen' s Metal. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; regulus of antimony, 
8 ; bismuth, i ; copper, 4. 

Hard WJiite Metal. — Grain copper, 3 lbs.; tin, 90 lbs. ; 
antimony, 70 lbs. 

Metal for Taking Impressions. — Lead, 6 lbs. ; tin, 4 lbs. ; 
bismuth, 10 lbs. 

Rivet Metal. — Copper, 4 lbs. ; tin, 4 oz. ; zinc, 2 oz. 

Rivet Metal for Hose, Belting, etc. — Copper, 32 lbs. ; 
tin, one-half lb. 

Bullet Metal. — Lead, 98 parts ; arsenic, 2. 

Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 parts; zinc, 9. 

Cock Metal. — Copper, 20 lbs., lead, 8 lbs.; litharge, i 
oz.; antimony, 3 oz. 

White Metals. 









rd 











^ 








a 


3 

1 


a 

<: 


2 - 

pq 


1 


i 




Alloys. 


89 




2 


2 


7 










Plate pewter. 


7S 


Q 




8 


8 










Queen's metal. 


89 




2 




6 


2 


I 






Britannia metal. 


4 


I 
















Pewter. 


80 








20 










Music metal. 


50 














50 




Silver leaf. 


90 


10 
















Organ pipes. 


100 




2 


2 


8 










Best plate pewter. 


29 


19 
















Reflector metal. 



234 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

The last two alloys are used for coating the insides of 
glass globes and many other similar purposes. A little of 
the metal is poured into the globe, or other vessel, ^/hich, 
being turned about, receives a thin film of a brilliant, sil- 
very appearance, the excess of metal being poured back 
into the ladle. 

Expa7isive Metal. — Lead, 9 parts; antimony, 2; bis- 
muth, I. This alloy expands on cooling, and is used for 
filling small holes or defects in castings. 

Bronze for Gilding. — This should be fusible at a low 
temperature, compact and close-grained. Copper, 82.25; 
zinc, 17.50, and tin, 0.25 ; gilds well. 

Blanched Copper. — Fuse i lb. of copper and i oz. of 
neutral arsenic al salt with a flux made of calcined borax, 
charcoal dust and powdered glass. 

Ormolu. — The ormolu of the brass founder, which is an 
imitation of red gold, is extensively used in ornamenting 
iron work, as well as in many other branches of artistic 
trade. It is composed of more copper and less zinc than 
ordinary brass ; it is readily cleaned by acid, and can be 
easily burnished. To make it more brilliant, it may be 
brightened up after dipping by means of a scratch-brush. 
To protect it from tarnish, it should be lacquered. 

Stereotype Metal. — Tin, i ; antimony, i ; lead, 4 parts. 

Type Metal. — Lead 9 parts to antimony i forms common 
t\pe metal ; lead 7 to i of antimony is used for large and 
soft type; lead 6 and antimony i for large type; lead 5 
and antimony i for middle type ; lead 4 and antimony i 
for small type, and lead 3 to antimony i for the smallest 
and hardest kinds of t}-pe. 

Artificial Gold. — Pure copper, 100 parts; zinc (or pref- 
erably tin), 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal-ammoniac, 
three-sixth part ; quicklime, one-eighth part : tartar of 
commerce, 9 parts; are mixed as follows: The copper is 
first melted; then the magnesia, sal-ammoniac, lime. 



SOLDERS. 



235 



and tartar are added, separately and by degrees, in the 
form of powder ; the whole is now briskly stirred for about 
half an hour, so as to mix thoroughly; and then the zinc 
is added in small grains by throwing it on the surface ai.d 
stirring till it is entirely fused ; the crucible is then cov- 
ered and the fusion maintained for about 35 minutes. The 
surface is then skimmed and the alloy is ready for casting. 
It has a fine grain, is malleable and takes a splendid polish. 
It does not corrode readily, and for many purposes is an 
excellent substitute for gold. When tarnished, its bril- 
liancy can be restored by a little acidulated water. If tin 
be employed instead of zinc, the alloy will be more bril- 
liant. It is very much used in France, and must ultimately 
attain equal popularity here. 

SOLDERS. 



The follown'ng table gives the composition of soft solders 
and their melting-points : 









^ 






















































^ 










j: 








d 










a 


(l> 






fe 


<L1 






.5 


^ 


J^ 






CO 


X2 






3 




s 


c 




"^ 


s 


c 


1 


g 




;? 


H 


H-l 


Q 


1 


H 




M 





I 




25 


■ 1 
558 1 


10 


4 


I 





365 


2 




10 


541 1 


II 


5 


' 





H^ 


3 




5 


5" ! 


12 


6 


I 





381 


4 




3 


482 


13 


4 


4 


I 


320 


5 




2 


441 


14 


3 


3 


I 


310 


6 




I 


370 


15 


2 


2 


I 


392 


7 


IK 


I 


334 


16 


I. 


I 


I 


354 


8 


2 


I 


340 


17 


2 


I 


2 


336 


9 


3 


^ 


356 


18 


^ 


5 


8 


202 



By the addition of 3 parts of mercury to No. 18, it melts 
at 122° Fahrenheit. 



236 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 
Hard Solders. 



a- 
c 
U 



Uses. 



Spelter, hardest. . . 

Spelter, hard 

Spelter, soft 

Spelter, finer 

Silver solder 

Silver solder, hard 
Silver solder, soft.. 



2 


J 


O 


^'A 


I 


O 




I 


o 


2 


2 


oyi 




O 


' i 




O 


1 


I 


O 


2 



For iron work, gun metal, etc. 

For copper and iron. 

For ordinary brass work. 

For finer kinds of brass work. 
f Hardest, but makes a very neat 
1 1 joint. 
r Makes a sound joint, but will 
( not burn. 

For general use. 



Solder for Gold. — Gold, 6 parts; silver, i ; copper, i. 

WJiite Solder for Raised Britannia Ware. — Tin, loo lbs. \ 
copper, 3 oz. ; to make it free, add lead, 3 oz. 

Solder for Steel Joints. — Silver, 19 parts; copper, i; 
brass, 2. Melt under a coat of charcoal dust. 

Solders for Aluminiinn. — i. Col. Frishmuth, of Phila- 
delphia, recommends a solder of 10 parts of silver, 10 of 
copper, 20 of aluminium, 60 of tin and 30 of zinc. This 
solder is especially suitable for ornamental chains, etc. 
For solder to be used with the ordinary soldering iron, 
either 95 parts of tin and 5 parts of bismuth, or 97 parts 
of tin and 3 of bismuth, may be taken, paraffin, stearin, 
vaseline, copaiba balsam or benzine being in all cases em- 
ployed as a flux. The articles to be soldered must be thor- 
oughly cleansed, and the parts to be united just sufficiently 
heated for the solder to adhere to them. 2. Zinc, 80 parts 
by weight; copper, 8; aluminium, 12. 3. Zinc, 85; 
copper, 6 ; aluminium, 9. 4. Zinc, Z% ; copper, 5 ; alu- 
minium, 7. 5. Zinc, 90; copper, 4; aluminium, 6. 6. 
Ziur, 94; copper, 2 ; aluminium, 4. The solders are pre- 
pared as follows : Melt the copper and gradually introduce 



SOLDERS. 237 

the alumiRium in three or four portions. The specific 

gravity of the two metals varying very much, as perfect a 
union as possible should be brought about by stirring with 
a clay rod. Immediately after the last portion of alumin- 
ium has combined with the copper, add the zinc, throwing 
at the same time a small quantity of fat or resin into the 
crucible, and after quickly stirring pour the alloy into iron 
moulds, previously coated with coal tar, oil or benzine. 

The zinc used should be perfectly free from iron, since 
even a very minute quantity of the latter has an inju- 
rious effect upon the strength and fusibility of the alloys. 

Solder for Ahimimum Bronze. — Ordinary soft solder, 2 
parts; zinc amalgam, i ; or, ordinary soft solder, 4; zinc 
amalgam, i ; or, ordinary soft solder, 8 ; zinc amalgam, i. 
Zinc amalgam is an alloy of zinc and mercury. It is pre-" 
pared by adding to 2 parts of melted zinc i of mercury, 
and after vigorously stirring, cooling it off as quickly as 
possible. When cold, it forms a very brittle alloy of a 
silver-white color. 

To prepare the solder for aluminium bronze, melt the 
ordinary solder, and after adding the finely powdered zinc 
amalgam, pour the solder at once into the moulds. 

To Solder Flafuii/f/i. — Heat the platinum on the place 
to be soldered to a red heat over a Bunsen 'burner, and lay 
a small piece of sheet-platinum upon the crack. For sol- 
dering, an oxyhydrogen blow-pipe is required. The flame 
is so regulated that, before the entrance of the oxygen, it is 
about 4^ inches, and that after the admission of the cur- 
rent of oxygen, the inner cone of flame has a length of 
about 0.31 inch. This flame is gradually brought near the 
place to be soldered. In the white heat the piece of 
sheet platinum placed upon the crack melts to a ball, 
and soon spreads over the crack, when the flame is to be 
removed. If necessary, repeat the melting. It is advisable 



238 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

to protect the eyes by smoked glasses from the light of the 
dazzling white heat of the platinum. 

Metallic Cement. — An alloy of copper and mercury, 
useful when metals are to be soldered together at a low 
temperature, can be made as follows: From 20 to 30 
parts of finely divided copper, obtained by the reduction 
of oxide of copper with hydrogen ; or by precipitating 
from solution of its sulphate with zinc, are made into a 
paste with oil of vitriol and 70 parts of mercury added ; 
the whole being well triturated. When amalgamation is 
complete, the acid is removed by washing with boiling water, 
and the compound allowed to cool. In ten or twelve hours 
it becomes sufficiently hard to receive a brilliant polish, 
and to scratch the surface of tin or gold. To use the alloy 
for soldering, it is warmed till it is about the consistency 
of wax, and in this state it is applied to the joint, to which, 
on cooling, it adheres very firmly. 

To Color Soft Solder. — The following method for color- 
ing soft solder so that when it is used for uniting brass the 
colors may be about the same, has been recommended. In 
making the solutions, care sliould be had to use glass or 
earthen dishes. First prepare a saturated solution of sul- 
phate of copper (blue vitriol) in water, and apply some of 
this on the end of a stick or small brush to the solder. On 
touching it then with an iron or steel wire it becomes cop- 
]:)ered, and by repeating the experiment the deposit may 
be made thicker and darker. To give the solder a yellow 
(-olor, mix in part of a saturated solution of sulphate of 
zinc with two of sulphate of copper ; apply this to the 
coppered spot and rub with a zinc rod. The color may 
still be improved by applying gilt powder and polishing. 
On gold jewelry, or colored gold, the solder is first colored 
vellow, as above described ; then a thin coat of gum or 
isinglass solution is laid on, and bronze powder dusted 



SOLDERS. 239 

over it, making a surface which can be polished smooth 
and brilliant when the gum is dry. 

To Join Small Baud Saws. — The parts to be joined must 
be bevelled to a nice fit. Secure the saw at both ends in 
clamps. See tliat the edges are parallel, or a short and a 
long edge will be the result, which will cause the saw to 
run badly and when strained to break on the short edge. 
Put on the filed parts a thin coat of borax paste. Cut a 
piece of very thin slieet-silver solder of the same size as 
joint to be made, which place between the lap. Take a 
pair of tongs having suitably-sized jaws for the joint, 
and that have been heated to a bright red, sufficiently to 
melt the solder. Scrape all the scale off between the jaws 
with an old file ; hold tlie joint with the hot tongs until 
the solder has thoroughly melted ; remove the hot tongs 
carefully, and follow up "with another pair heated to a dull 
red, which will set the solder and prevent the joint from 
being chilled too suddenly. The joint can then be dressed 
to thickness of the saw blade. It would be as well to have 
a pair of cold tongs to clamp the hot jaws firmly to the 
joint, as the hot iron must fit nicely over the whole width 
of the saw. In joining, do not make the lap longer than 
is absolutely necessary ; one-half inch is sufficient for scroll 
saws, and three-quarter inch for saws two to eight inches 
wide. 

To Make Muriate of Zinc. — Feed into muriatic acid 
small pieces of zinc until the mixture ceases to boil, after 
which dilute with an equal portion of rain or distilled water. 

To Prepare Borax for Brazing. — Roast the borax until 
all the moisture is driven off ; pulverize and mix with dis- 
tilled water to a thin paste. 

Soldering Iron and Steel. — For large and heavy pieces 
of iron and steel, copper or brass is used. The surfaces to 
be united are first filed off, in order that they may be clean ; 
they are then bound together with wire, a thin layer of 



240 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

copper or brass laid along the junction, and the whole cov- 
ered with a layer (i inch in thickness) of clay free from 
sand. After drying, the pieces to be united are brought 
to a white heat, and then plunged into cold water, in 
the case of iron being soldered to iron ; or allowed 
slowly to cool if iron be soldered to steel, or steel sol- 
dered to steel. The vitrified clay is then broken off. 
If brass instead of copper is used, it is not neces- 
sary to heat so strongly ; the former, therefore, recom- 
mends itself for steel. Articles of iron and steel of 
medium size are best united with hard or soft brass solders. 
In both cases the seams are cleanly filed and spread over 
with solder and borax, when the soldering seam is heated. 
Hard solder is prepared by melting in a crucible 8 parts 
of brass, and adding i part of previously heated zinc. 
The crucible is then covered and exposed to a glowing 
heat for a few minutes ; then emptied into a pail with cold 
water, the water being strongly agitated with a broom. 
Thus the metal is obtained in small grains or granules- 
Soft brass solder is obtained by melting together 6 parts of 
brass, i of zinc, and i of tin. The granulation is carried 
out as indicated above. Small articles are best soldered 
with hard silver solder or soft solder. The former is ob- 
tained by alloying equal parts of fine silver and soft brass. 
In fusing, the mass is covered with borax, and, when cold, 
the metal is beaten out to a thin sheet, of which a suffi- 
ciently large and previously annealed j^iece is placed, with 
borax, upon the seams to be united and heated. Soft solder 
differs from hard silver solder only in that it contains one- 
.dxteenth of tin, which is added to it during fusion. Very 
fine articles of iron and steel are soldered with gold, namely, 
either with pure gold or hard gold solder. The latter can 
be obtained by fusion of i part gold, 2 parts silver, and 3 
copper. Fine steel wire can also be soldered witli tin, but 
tlie work is not verv durable. Hard and soft brass solder 



JOINTS. 



241 



are used for uniting brass to iron and steel, silver solder for 
silver, hard gold solder for gold. 

JOINTS. 

The following are the more important seams or joints used 
in .metal plate work. 

Fig. 170 shows the various methods of making joints at 



L = 



R 

ST 
U 

V 



*^ K^ y^ 



^51 



/\ ■ 11 I 




big. 170. 

angles of sheet-metaL A and B are .or the thinnest metals, 
such as tin, which require a film of soft solder on one or 
the other side. Sheet lead is similarly joined, and both are 
iisually soldered from within. 



242 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Cand D are the butt and mitre joints used for thicker 
metals with hard solders. Sometimes D is dovetailed 
together, the edges being filed to correspond coarsely; 
sometimes they are partly riveted before being soldered 
from within. These joints are very weak wlien united with 
soft solder. 

E is the lap joint, the metal being creased over the 
hatchet-stake. Tin plate requires an external layer of 
solder ; spelter solder runs through the crack and does not 
project. 

7^ is folded by means of the hatchet-stake; the two are 
then hammered together, but require a film of solder to 
prevent their sliding asunder. 

G is \.\\t folded angle joint used for fire-proof deed boxes 
and otner strong work in which solder would be inadmis- 
sible. It is common in tin and copper work, but less so 
in iron and zinc, which do not bend so readily. 

If is a. riveled joint, which is very commonly used in 
strong iron plate and copper work, as in boilers, etc. 
Generally a rivet is inserted at each end, then the other 
holes are punched through the two thicknesses. The head 
of the rivet is put within, the metal is flattened around it, 
by placing the small hole of a riveting set over the pin of 
the rivet, and giving a blow ; the rivet is then clinched, 
and is finished to circular form by the concave hollow in 
the riveting set. 

In IK out plate is punched with a long mortise, the 
other being formed into tenons, which are inserted and 
riveted. K, however, has tenons with transverse keys, 
which can be taken out and the plate released. 

Fig. 170 also illustrates straight joints. L is the lap 
joint employed with solder for tin-plates, sheet-lead, etc., 
and for tubes bent of these materials. 

il/is the (^//// joint used for plates and small tubes of the 
various metals. When united bv hard solder or brazed, 



JOINTS. 243 

such joints are moderately strong, but with soft solder they 
are very weak from the limited superficies of the adhering 
surface. 

N is the cramp joint. The edges are thinned by the 
hammer, the one is left plain, while the other is notched 
obliquely with shears for one-eighth of an inch deep, each 
alternate cramp is bent up, the other down, for insertion 
of the plain edge. They are then hammered together and 
brazed, after which they may be made nearly flat by the 
hammer, and quite so by the file. The cramp joint is used 
for thin work requiring strength. Sometimes the lap joint 
(Z) is feather- edged. This improves it, but it is still 
inferior to the cramp joint in strength. 

O is the lap joint, without solder for tin, copper, iron, 
etc. It is set down flat with a seam set, and is used for 
smoke-pipes, and numerousAvorks not required to be steam 
and water tight. 

P is used for zinc works and others. It saves the 
double bend of the preceding. It is sometimes called the 
"patent strip over lap." 

Q is the roll joint, used for lead roofs. 

^ is a hollow crease, used till recently for vessels and 
chambers for making sulphuric acid. The metal is scraped 
perfectly clean, filled with lead heated nearly to redness, 
and the whole united by burning with an iron also heated 
to redness. Solder which contains tin would be attacked 
by the acid. This method of soldering is now superseded 
by autogenous soldering. 

ST are joints united by screw bolts or rivets, for iron 
and copper boilers, etc. 

U, united with rivets in ordinary manner of uniting the 
plates of marine boilers, and other work requiring to be 
flusTi externally. 

V is a similar case, used of late years for constructing 
the largest iron steam-ships, etc. The ribs of the vessel 



244 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

are made of T iron, varying from about 4 to 8 inches 
wide, which is bent to the curves by the employment of 
very large surface plates cast full of holes, upon which the 
wood-model of the rib is laid down, and a chalk mark is 
made around its edge. Dogs or pins are wedged at short 
intervals in all these holes, which intersect the course. The 
rib heated to redness in a reverberatory furnace, is wedged 
fast at one end, and bent around the pins by sets, and 
sledge-hammers, and as it yields to the curve each pin is 
secured by wedges until the whole is completed. 

MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 

Paint for Coating Wire Work. — Boil good linseed oil 
with as much litharge as will make it of the consistency to 
be laid on with the brush ; add lampblack at the rate of 
one part to every ten, by weight, of the litharge ; boil three 
hours over a gentle fire. The first coat should be thinner 
than the following coats. 

Razor Paste. — i. Levigated oxide of tin (prepared putty 
powder) i oz. ; powdered oxalic acid ]4, oz. ; powdered gum 
20 grs. ; make it into a stiff paste with water, and evenly 
and thinly spread it over the strop. With very little 
friction, this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and its 
efficiency is still further increased by moistening it. 

2. Emery reduced to an impalpable powder 2 parts ; 
spermaceti ointment i part ; mix together, and rub it over 
the strop. 

3. Jewellers' rouge, blacklead, and suet, equal parts; 
mix. 

Cutting Glass. — To cut bottles, shades, or other glass 
vessels neatly, lieat a rod of iron to redness, and having 
filled your vessel the exact height you wish it to be cut, 
with oil of any kind, }-ou proceed very gradually to dip 
the red hot iron into the oil, which, heating all along the 
iurface, suddenly the glass chips and cracks right round. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 245 

when you can lift off the upper portion clean by the sur- 
face of the oil. 

Prepared Liquid Glue. — Take of best white glue i6 oz. ; 
white lead, dry, 4 oz. ; rain water 2 pts. ; alcohol 4 oz. 
With constant stirring dissolve the glue and lead in the 
water by means of a water-bath. Add the alcohol, and 
continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly pour into 
bottles wliile it is hot. 

Liquid Glues. — Dissolve 33 parts of best glue on the 
steam bath in a porcelain vessel, in 36 parts of water. 
Then add gradually, stirring constantly, 3 parts of aqua 
fortis, or as much as is sufficient to prevent the glue from 
hardening when cool. Or dissolve one part of powdered 
alum in 120 of water, add 120 parts of glue, 10 of acetic 
acid and 40 of alcohol, and digest. 

Afarifie Glue. — Dissolve 4 parts of India rubber in 34 
parts of coal tar naphtha— aiding the solution with heat 
and agitation ; add to it 64 parts of powdered shellac, 
which must be heated in the mixture, till the whole is dis- 
solved. While the mixture is hot it is poured upon metal 
plates in slieets like leather. When required for use, it is 
heated in a pot, till soft, and then applied with a brush to 
the surfaces to be joined. Two pieces of wood joined 
with this glue can scarcely be sundered. 

Dextrine, or Biilish Gum. — Dry potato-starch heated 
from 300° to 600° until it becomes brown, soluble in cold 
water, and censes to turn blue with iodiiie. Usedhs calico 
printers and others, instead of gum arabic. 

A Liquid Glue thai Keeps for Years. — Dissolve 2 pounds 
good glue in 2 and one-ninth pints hot water; add grad- 
ually 7 oz= nitric acid, and mix well. 

An excellent liquid glue is also made by dissolving glue 
in nitric ether ; this fluid will only dissolve a certain amount 
of glue, consequently the solution cannot be made too 
thick. The frlue solution obtained has about the consist- 



246 TIX, SHEET-IHON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKEPv. 

ency of molasses, and is doubly as tenacious as that made 
with hot water. If a few pieces of caoutchouc, cut into 
scraps the size of buck-shot, be added, and the solution 
allowed to stand a few days, being frequently stirred, it will 
be all the better, and will resist dampness twice as well as 
glue made with water. 

Sealing-wax for F7-uii-cans. — Beeswax, one-half oz. ; 
English vermilion, lyi oz. ; gum shellac, 2 jo oz. ; rosin, 
8 oz. Take some cheap iron vessel that you can always 
keep for the purpose, and put in the rosin and melt it, and 
stir in tlie vermilion. Then add the shellac, slowly, and 
stir that in, and afterward the beeswax. When wanted for 
use at any after time, set it upon a slow fire and melt it so 
you can dip bottle-nozzles in. For any purpose, such as 
an application to trees, where you want it tougher than the 
above preparation will make it, add a little more beeswax, 
and leave out tlie vermilion. 

If the vermilion is left out in the above, the wax will 
be all the better for it, as it is merely used for coloring 
purposes. 

Broiuniug Gun Barrels. — The tincture of iodine diluted 
with one-half its bulk of water, is a superior liquid for 
browning gun barrels. 

Silvering Powder for Coating Copper. — Nitrate of silver, 
30 grains; common salt, 30 grains ; cream of tartar, 3>< 
draclims ; mix, moisten witli water, and apply. 

To Prevent Rusting. — Boiled linseed oil will keep pol- 
ished tools from rusting if it is allowed to dry on them. 
Common sperm oil will prevent them from rusting for a 
short period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently ap- 
plied to polished tools exposed to the weather. 

Quick, Bright Dipping Acid, for Brass w/iicli has been 
Or^nolued. — Sulphuric acid, i gal. ; nitric acid, i gal. 

Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 12 lbs. ; nitric acid, i 
pint ; nitre, 4 lbs. ; soot, 2 handfuls ; brimstone, 2 oz. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 247 

Pulverize the brimstone and soak it in water for an hour. 
Add the nitric acid last. 

Good Dipping Acid, for Cast ^r^i-i-.— Sulphuric acid, i 
qt. ; nitre, i qt. ; water, i qt. A little muriatic acid may 
be added or omitted. 

Dippi?ig Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 4 gals. ; nitric acid, 2 
gals. ; saturated solution of sulphate of iron (copperas), i 
pt. ; solution of sulphate of copper, i qt. 

Orffwlu Dipping Acid, for Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric acid, 
2 gals. ; muriatic acid, i pt. ; water, i pt. ; nitre, 12 lbs. 
Put in the muriatic acid last, a little at a time, and stir the 
mixture with a stick. 

Ormolu Dipping Acid, for Slice f or Cast Brass. — Sulphu- 
ric acid, I gal. ; sal ammoniac, i oz. ; sulphur (in flour), 
I oz. ; blue vitriol, i oz. ; saturated solution of zinc in 
nitric acid, mixed with an equal quantity of sulphuric acid, 
I gal. 

To Prepare Brass Work for Ormolu Dipping. — If the 
work is oily, boil it in lye; and if it is finished work, filed 
or turned, dip it in old acid, and it is then ready to be 
ormolued ; but if it is unfinished, and free from oil, pickle 
it in strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, and 
then in the old acid, after which it will be ready for ormo- 
luing. 

To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips. — If the work, 
after dipping, appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol until 
it answers the purpose. If the work, after dipping, appears 
too smooth, add muriatic acid and nitre till it gives the 
right appearance. 

The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to 
the recipes, putting in the proper ingredients to strengthen 
them. They should not be allowed to settle, but should 
be stirred often while using. 

Vinegar Bronze for Brass. — Vinegar, 10 gals. ; blue 



248 TIN, SHEET-IROX AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

vitriol, 3 lbs. ; muriatic acid, 3 lbs. ; corrosive sublimate.- 
4 grs.; sal ammoniac, 2 Ibs.j alum, 8 oz. 

Brown Bro7ize Dip. — Iron scales, i lb.; arsenic, i oz, ; 
muriatic acid, i lb. ; zinc (solid), i oz. Let the zinc be 
kept in only while it is in use. 

Green Bro7ize Dip. — Wine vinegar, 2 qts. ) verditer 
green, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac, i oz. ; salt, 2 oz. ; alum, one- 
half oz. ; French berries, 8 oz. ; boil the ingredients to- 
gether. 

Aquafortis Brofize Dip. — Nitric acid, 8 oz. ; muriatic 
acid, I qt. ; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; alum, i oz. ; salt, 2 oz.; 
water, 2 gals. Add the salt after boiling the other ingre- 
dients, and use it hot. 

Olive Bronze Dip for Brass. — Nitric acid, 3 oz. ; mu- 
riatic acid, 2 oz. ; add titanium or palladium; when the 
metal is dissolved, add 2 gals, pure soft water to each pint 
of the solution. 

Brown Bronze Fai?it for Copper Vessels. — Tincture of 
steel, 4 oz. ; spirits of nitre, 4 oz. ; essence of dendi, 4 
oz. ; blue vitriol, i oz. ; water, one-half pint. Mix in a 
bottle. Apply it with a line brush, the vessel being full of 
boiling water ; varnish after the application of the bronze. 

Bro?ize for All Kinds of Metals. — Muriate of ammonia 
(sal ammoniac), 4 drachms ; oxalic acid, i dr. ; vinegar, 
I pint. Dissolve the oxalic acid first. Let the work be 
clean. Put on the bronze with a brush, repeating the op- 
eration as many times as may be necessary. 

Bro7ize Paint for Iron or Brass. — Chrome green, 2 lbs, 
ivory black, i oz. ; chrome yellow, i oz.'; good japan, i 
gill. Grind all together and mix with linseed oil. 

To Bro7ize Gun Barrels. — Dilute nitric acid with water 
and rub the gun barrels with it; lay them by for a few days, 
then rub them with oil and polish them with beeswax. 

Silvering by Heat. — Dissolve i oz. of silver in nitric 
acid; add a small quantity of salt ; then wash it and add 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 249 

some sal ammoniac, or 6 oz. of salt and white vitriol; also 
one-quarter oz. of corrosive sublimate ; rub them together 
till they form a paste ; rub the piece which is to be silvered 
with the paste, heat it till the silver runs, after which dip 
it in a weak vitriol pickle to clean it. 

Mixture for Silvering. — Dissolve 2 oz. of silver with 3 
grains of corrosive sublimate ; add tartaric acid, 4 lbs ; 
salt, 8 qts. 

To Separate Silver from Copper. — Mix sulphuric acid, i 
part; nitric acid, i part; water, i part; boil the metal in 
the mixture till it is dissolved, and throw in a little salt to 
cause the silver to precipitate. 

Solvent for Gold. — Mix equal quantities of nitric and 
muriatic acids. 

Composition used in Welding Cast Steel. — Borax, 10; sal 
ammoniac, i part. Grind or pound them roughly together; 
then fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care 
to continue the heat until all scum has disappeared from 
the surface. When the liquid appears clear, the composi- 
tion is ready to be poured out to cool and concrete ; after- 
wards, being ground to a fine powder, it is ready for use. 
To use this composition, the steel to be welded is raised 
to a heat v/hich may be expressed by " bright-yellow." It 
is then dipped among the welding powder, and again placed 
in the fire until it attains the same degree of heat as before. 
It is then ready to be placed under the hammer. 

Cast-Iron Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings, of cast 
iron, 16; sal ammoniac, 2 ; flour of sulphur, i part. Mix 
them well together in a mortar and keep them dry. When 
required for use, take of the mixture i ; clean borings, 20 
parts. Mix thoroughly and add a sufficient quantity of 
water. A little grindstone dust added improves the cement. 

Beautiful and Durable Bronze upon Tin and Tin Alloys. 
— After carefully cleansing the article from dirt and grease, 
coat it lightly with a solution of i part of sulphate of cop- 



250 TIN, SHEETIRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

per (blue vitriol), and i part of copperas, in 20 parts of 
water, and after drying, with a solution of i part of verdi- 
gris in 4 of vinegar. After again drying, impart lustre to 
the article by rubbing with a soft brush dipped at first into 
jewellers' rouge, and frequently breathing upon it. The 
places in relief are then rubbed with a piece of soft leather 
moistened with solution of wax in turpentine, and finally 
rubbed with a dry leather. 

Bronzing Gas Fixtures. — Boil the fixture in strong lye 
and scour it free from all grease or old lacquer. Next 
pickle it in dilute nitric acid till it is quite clean (not 
bright) ; then dip in strong acid, and rinse through four 
or five waters. Repeat the dipping, if necessary, till it is 
bright. Next bind it very loose with thin iron wire, and 
lay it in the strongest of the waters used for rinsing. This 
will deposit a coat of copper all over it if the water or 
pickle be not too strong; jf such is the case, the copper 
will only be deposited just round where the wire touches. 
When the copper is of sufficient thickness, wash the article 
again in the waters and dry it with a brush in some hot 
sawdust, boxwood dust being best; but if this cannot be 
had, oak, ash or beech will do. The fixture is now ready 
for bronzing. The bronze is a mixture of black lead and 
red bronze, varied according to the shade required, mixed 
with boiling water. The work is to be painted over with 
this, and dried ; then brushed until it polishes. If there 
are any black spots or rings .on the work, another coat of 
the bronze will remove them. Lacquer the work with pale, 
or but very-little-colored lacquer, for if it is of too deep a 
color it will soon chip off. 

Another Method is to mix vinegar or dilute sulphuric 
acid (I acid to 12 water) with powdered black lead in a 
saucer or open vessel. Apply this to the brass with a soft 
brush by gentle brushing. This will soon assume a polish, 
and is fit for lacquering. The brass must be made slightly 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS, 251 

warmer than for lacquering only. The color, black or 
green, varies with tlie thickness of black lead. 

To Bronze Plaster of Paris Figures. — Lay the figure over 
with isinglass size, without, however, allowing any part of 
its surface to become dry. Tiien, with a brush — such as is 
termed by painters a sash tool — go over the whole, taking 
care to remove, while it is yet soft, any part of the size that 
may lodge on the delicate parts of the figure. When it is 
dry, take a very little, thin, oil gold size, and with as much 
as just dampens the brush go over the figure with it, allow- 
ing no more to remain than causes it to shine. Set it aside 
in, a dry place free from smoke, and in 48 hours the figure 
is ready to receive the bronze. 

After having touched over the whole figure with the 
bronze powder, let it stand another day, and then with a 
soft dry brush rub off all the loose powder, particularly 
from the more prominent parts. 

To Cleanse Plaster of Paris Busts and Statuettes. — If it 
is not desired to bronze or paint them, the figures may be 
cleansed by dipping them in a thick liquid starch and 
drying, and when the starch is brushed off, the dirt is 
brushed off with it. 

Coppering of Iron Rollers for Calico Printing. — First 
cleanse the iron cylinders with a concentrated alkaline lye, 
then wash thoroughly in water and go over the whole sur- 
face with the file. The surface is then very bright, and is 
not to be touched with the finger or soiled with the breath. 
It is then plunged into an alkaline bath composed of sul- 
phate of copper I part, dissolved in water 12 parts; cyan- 
ide of potassium, 3 parts ; carbonate of soda, 4 parts ; 
sulphate of soda, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 16 parts. Or, 
ammonia, 3 parts ; acetate of copper, 2 parts, dissolved in 
water 10 parts. The cylinder is allowed to remain 24 
hours in one of these baths, subject to the action of a bat- 
tery of four or six pairs, till the surface is coated with a 



252 TIX, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

slender but firmly-adhering la}er of copper. It is washed 
and cleansed with pumice stone. lt\ in this operation, the 
iron should be laid bare in any part, the c\ Under must be 
submitted to the alkaline bath anew. As soon as the coat- 
ing of copper is uniform, it is washed in acidulated water 
and immersed in an acid bath of sulphate of coi)per. Thffe 
bath is composed of solution of copper at 20° B., to which 
3,', Q of its volume of sulphuric acid is added to facilitate 
the solution of some metallic copper, which is also im- 
mersed in the bath for the purpose of maintaining the 
solution in a uniform state of concentration. Here the cyl- 
inder is left until the layer of copper has attained the de- 
sired thickness, a galvanic current being kei)t up by a 
battery of four pairs. If the temperature is between 60"^ 
and 65° F., three to four weeks are required to produce a 
deposit of 3^ inch in thickness. The cylinder is turned 
one-quarter round daily, to change the portion of its sur- 
face which faces the sheet of copper used as a positive 
electrode. 

Ti? Tin Copper and Brass.— ^o\\ 3 lbs. of cream of 
tartar, 4 lbs. of granulated tin or tin shavings, and 2 gal- 
lons of water. After boiling for a sufficient time, place the 
articles to be tinned in the mixture, and the boibng being 
continued, the tin is precipitated in its metallic form. 

To Tin L'on Saucepans. — If the sauce-pan is an old 
one, it must be put on the fire and allowed to get nearly red 
hot, which will get rid of all the grease. Then make a 
pickle of the following proportions : Sulphuric acid, one- 
quarter lb. ; muriatic acid, 2 oz. ; water, i pt. \i the 
sauce-pan can be filled, so much the better; if not, keep 
the pickle flowing over it for five minutes ; then rinse off 
with water, scour well with sand or coke dust, and rinse, 
thoroughly with water. If the pan is clean, it will be of 
a uniform gray color; but if there are any red or black 
spots, it must be pickled and scoured again until thoroughly 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 253 

clean. Have ready chloride of zinc, /. e., muriatic acid, 
in which sheet zinc has been dissolved, some powdered sal 
ammoniac, about i8 inches of iron rod about one-quarter 
or three-eighths inch thick, one end flattened out and bent 
up a little, and filed clean, and some bar tin. Dip a wisp 
of tow in the chloride of zinc, then into the powdered sal 
ammoniac, taking up a good quantity, and rub well all over 
the inside. This must be done directly after the scouring, 
for, if allowed to stand, it will oxidize. Now put the pan 
over the fire until it is hot enough to melt tin, and then 
brush the end of a bar of tin over the heated part until 
melted. Rub the tin well over the surface with the flat- 
tened end of the iron rod. Care should be had not to heat 
too large a surface at once, nor to let it get too hot, which 
may be known by the tin getting discolored, when some 
dry sal ammoniac must be thrown in. Having gone all 
over it, wipe lightly with a wisp of tow, made just warm 
enough to prevent the tin from sticking to it. When cold, 
scour well with sand and tow, rinsing with plenty of water. 

Cold Tinning.— Y)\o<zV tin dissolved in muriatic acid 
with a little mercury forms a very good amalgam for cold 
tinning; or i part of tin, 2 of zinc, and 6 of mercury. 
Mix the tin and mercury together until they form a soft 
paste. Clean the metal to be tinned, taking care to free 
it from greasiness. Then rub it with a piece of cloth 
moistened with muriatic acid and immediately apply a 
little of the amalgam to the surface, rubbing it with the 
same rag. The amalgam will adhere to the surface and 
thoroughly tin it. Cast-iron, wrought-iron, steel and 
copper may be tinned in this manner. Those who find it 
difficult to make soft solder adhere to iron with sal am- 
moniac, will find no difficulty if they first tin the surfaces 
in this manner, and then proceed as with ordinary tin 
plate. 

To Tin Small Articles.— V\z.qq them in warm water, 



254 TIN, SHEET-IEOX AND COPPER-PLATE WOP.KER. 

with a little sulphuric acid added to it, which will clean 
them. Tlien powder some sal ammoniac, and mix it in 
the water, stirring vigorously until all is dissolved. After 
washing the articles in clean water, place them in the 
solution for a few minutes and then place them near the 
fire to dry. Procure a pan resembling a frying pan in 
shape, the bottom of which must be full of small holes. 
The pot for melting the tin must be large enough to admit 
the pan for holding the articles. Cover the bottom of the 
pan with the articles to be tinned, and after sprinkling a little 
powdered sal ammoniac over the surface of the molten tin 
to clear it from dross, dip the pan containing the articles 
into it ; after all smoke has disappeared, lift it out and shake 
well over the pot, sprinkling a little sal ammoniac over the 
goods to prevent them from having too thick a coat, and 
then cool them quickly in cold water to keep them bright. 

Galvanizing Brass and Copper. — Copper and brass may 
be coated with metallic zinc in the following way : Finely 
divided zinc, in a non-metallic vessel, is covered with a 
concentrated solution of sal ammoniac ; this is heated to 
boiling, and the articles of copper or brass, properly cleansed, 
are introduced. A few minutes then suffice to produce a 
firm and brilliant coating. The requisite fineness of the 
zinc is produced by pouring the melted metal into a mor- 
tar and triturating it until it solidifies. 

Cheap and Quick Method of Coloring Metals. — Metals 
may be colored quickly and cheaply by forming on their 
surface a coating of a thin film of a sulphide. In 5 
minutes brass articles may be coated wi'th any color vary- 
ing from gold to copper red, then to carmine, dark red, 
and from light aniline blue to a blue white, like sulphide 
of lead, and at last a reddish white according to the thick- 
ness of the coat, which depends on the length of time the 
metal remams m the solution used. The colors possess a 
very good lustre; and if the articles to be colored liave 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 255 

been previously thoroughly cleansed by means of acid and 
alkalies, they adliere so firmly that they may be operated 
upon by the polishing steel. 

To prepare the solution dissolve i^ oz. of hyposul- 
phite of soda in i lb. of water, and add i^ oz. of acetate 
of lead, dissolved in half a pound of water. When this 
clear solution is heated to from 190° to 210° F., it decom- 
poses slowly and precipitates sulphide of lead in brown 
flakes. If metal be now present, a part of the sulphide of 
lead is deposited thereon, and according to the thickness 
of the deposited sulphide of lead, the above-mentioned 
colors are produced. To produce an even coloring, the 
articles must be evenly heated. Iron treated with this 
solution takes a steel-blue color ; zinc a brown color ; in 
the case of copper objects, the first gold color does not 
appear. 

Ifj instead of the acetate of lead, an equal weight of 
sulphuric acid is added to the hyposulphite of soda, and 
the process carried on as before, the brass is covered with 
a very beautiful red, which is followed by a green (which 
is not in the first mentioned scale of colors), and changes 
finally to a splendid brown with green and red iris glitter. 
This last is a very durable coating. Very beautiful marble 
designs can be produced by using a lead solution, thickened 
with gum tragacanth, on brass which has been heated to 
210° F., and is afterwards treated by the usual solution of 
sulphide of lead. The solution may be used several times. 

Elcctroplatijig Pewter Surfaces. — Take i oz. of nitric 
acid and drop pieces of copper in it until effervescence 
ceases ; then add one-half oz. of water, and the solution is 
ready for use. Place a few drops of the solution on the 
desired surface and touch it with a piece of steel, and there 
will be a beautiful film of copper deposited. The appli- 
cation may be repeated, if necessary, though once is gen- 
erally sufficient. The article must now be washed and 



256 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

immediately placed in the plating bath, when deposition 
will take place. with perfect ease. 

Brown Thii for Iron and Steel. — Dissolve in 4 parts of 
water, 2 of crystallized chloride of iron, 2 of chloride 
of antimony, and i of gallic acid, and apply the solu- 
tion with a sponge or cloth to the article, and dry it in 
the air. Repeat this any number of times, according to 
the depth of color which it is desired to produce. Wash 
with water and dry, and finally rub the articles over with 
boiled linseed oil. The metal thus receives a brown tint 
and resists moisture. The chloride of antimony should be 
as little acid as possible. 

Enamelling Metals. — Enamel is simply glass, composed 
of lead and sand. When transparent, oxide of tin renders 
the transparent glass opaque ; mixed with oxide of gold it 
changes the clear or opaque glass into purple ; red is pro- 
duced by the addition of sulphate of iron ; oxide of copper 
produces green ; violet is produced by manganese, and blue 
by oxide of cobalt. 

The enamel is poured from the crucible in which it is 
melted into flat cakes. These cakes are broken up and re- 
duced to a fine granular condition in a mortar, or to a fine 
impalpable powder by grinding with a muUer on a slab. 
It is applied on metal which will stand a red heat without 
changing its form or fusing. Gold, silver, copper, brass 
or iron can be enamelled. There is no true enamel which 
has not been fused at a red heat. The modes of applica- 
tion vary. Applied on a flat plate, or plaque, it is worked 
with a brush. Of this class are the Limoges enamels. 
Other methods of application consist in incising, or cutting 
small troughs in the surface of the metallic object intended 
to be enamelled. In these the enamel is placed or applied. 
This method is called the champ-leve. Another method of 
reproducing is by means of electro-deposition. 
- The next variety of enamels is the partitioned or clois- 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS.- 257 

Sonne ; in this variety the cells are formed by bending a flat 
narrow strip of metal, in such a manner as to constitute the 
retaining walls. These, after being prepared, are arranged 
on the object and soldered to it. The various colors of 
enamel are then applied in the cells, and fired by subject- 
ing the object to be enamelled to the heat of a muffle. 
Repeated applications of enamel with repeated firings are 
required to fill the cells. The superfluous enamel is finally 
removed by grinding it away with pumice stone, and 
smoothing it with stones of different degrees of fineness. 
Apart from the labor of forming and placing the minute 
cells, there are difficulties attending the firing operation. 
Should one part of the muffle be too hot, and the solder 
become melted which holds the cells, the colors mingle, 
and the more so, the more the enamel is in a fluid condition, 
and a confluent mixture of colors is the result. 

Enamel for Watch Faces. — The faces are prepared with 
a backing of sheet-iron, having raised edges to receive the 
enamel in powder, which is fused. After cooling, the 
lettering and figuring are printed on the plate with soft 
black enamel by transferring, the plate being then again 
placed in a muffle to fuse the enamel of the lettering or 
figuring. The enamel used is composed of white lead, 
arsenic, flint glass, saltpetre, borax, and ground flint 
reduced to powder, fused and formed into cakes and 
ground up for use. 

To Polish Gold and Silver Lace. — Treat i}^ oz. of 
shellac, half a drachm of dragon's blood, and half a 
drachm of tiirmeric root with strong alcohol and decant the 
ruby-red-colored solution. The objects to be restored or 
brightened (either gold lace, spangles, clasps or knobs) 
are then brushed over with some of the color by a camel's- 
hair brush, and then a hot flat iron is passed over, so that 
the objects shall only be gently warmed. Gold embroidery 
is treated in the same manner. Detached gold knobs are 
17 



258 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

fastened on a stand, brushed over with the color, and then 
dried over red-hot coals, with the above-mentioned pre- 
caution. Silver lace or embroidery is polished with a 
powder obtained as follows : Alabaster is strongly heated 
and while hot is placed in corn whiskey. A white powder 
is obtained, which is gently heated over the flame of a 
spirit lamp. The powder is placed in a linen bag and the 
lace, etc., are dusted over with it, and then brushed off. 

Cleaning Tinware. — Ordinary tinware is made of sheet- 
iron, coated with tin. Acids should never be employed 
to clean such articles, because they attack the metal and 
remove it from the iron. Rub the articles to be cleaned 
first with rotten stone and sweet oil, then finish with whit- 
ing and a piece of soft leather. Articles made of solid tin 
should be cleaned in the same manner. In a dry atmos- 
phere planished tin will remain bright for a long period, 
but it soon becomes tarnished in moist air. 

Solvents for Rubbei'. — The proper solvents for caoutchouc 
are ether (free from alcohol), chloroform, bisulphide of car- 
bon, coal naphtha and rectified oil of turpentine. By long 
boiling in water, rubber softens, swells and becomes more 
soluble in its peculiar menstruum ; but when exposed to the 
air, it speedily resumes its pristine consistency and volume. 
Industrially, the ethereal solution of caoutchouc is useless 
because it contains hardly more than a trace of that sub- 
stance. Oil of turpentine dissolves caoutchouc only when 
the oil is very pure and with the application of heat. The 
ordinary oil of turpentine of commerce causes India rubber, 
to swell rather than to become dissolved. In order to pre- 
vent the viscosity of the India rubber when evaporated 
from its solution, i part of caoutchouc is worked up with 
2 parts of turpentine into a thin paste, to which is added 
half a part of a hot concentrated solution of sulphuret of 
potassium in water ; the yellow liquid formed leaves the 
caoutchouc perfectly elastic and without any viscosity. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 259 

The solutions of caoutchouc in coal tar, naphtha and 
benzine are most suited to unite pieces of caoutchouc, but 
the odor of the solvents is percep^tible for a long time. A 
chloroform is too expensive for common use, sulphide of 
carbon is the most usual and also the best solvent foi 
caoutchouc. This solution, owing to the volatility of the 
menstruum, soon dries, leaving the rubber in its natural 
state. When alcohol is mixed with sulphide of carboiT, 
the latter does no longer dissolve the caoutchouc, but 
simply softens it and renders it capable of being more 
readily vulcanized. Alcohol also precipitates solutions 
of caoutchouc. When caoutchouc is treated with hot 
naphtha distilled from native petroleum or coal tar, it 
swells to thirty times its former bulk ; and if then tritu- 
rated with a pestle and pressed through a sieve, it affords a 
homogeneous varnish, the same that is used in preparing 
the patent water-proof cloth of Mackintosh. Caoutchouc 
dissolves in the fixed oils, such as linseed oil, but the var- 
nish has not the property of becoming concrete on ex- 
posure to the air. Caoutchouc melts at a heat of about 
256° or 260° F. ; after it has been melted it does not 
solidify on cooling, but forms a sticky mass which does not 
become solid even when exposed to the air for months. 
Owing to this property it forms a valuable material for the 
lubrication of stop-cocks and joints intended to remain 
air-tight and yet be movable. 

EtcJwig Solution for Brass. — Prepare a mixture of 8 
parts of nitric acid (of specific gravity 1.40), and further- 
more dissolve 3 parts of potassium chlorate in 50 parts of 
water. Mix the two fluids thus obtained, and use the 
mixture for etching. For covering the ordinary etching 
ground is used. 

Compound for Casts. — A compound said to present a 
beautiful, semi-transparent white appearance, well suited 
for forming casts of fancy articles, consists of unbaked 



260 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

gypsum 2 parts; bleached beeswax i, and paraffine i. 
This compound becomes plastic at a temperature of about 
120*^ F., and articles cas]: from it retain a certain degree 
of toughness, owing to the beeswax contained in them. 

Imitation Gold Vaniish. — As a substitute for the ex- 
pensive "gold varnish" used on ornamental tinware, the 
following compound has been proposed: Turpentine half 
a gallon ; asphaltum half a gill; yellow aniline 2 ozs. ; 
umber 4 ozs. ; turpentine varnish i gal., and gamboge 
half a pound, mixed and boiled for 10 hours. This, it is 
said, wull have as good an effect as the gold varnish, and is 
very cheap. 

Ink for Marking Tinware. — A good ink for marking tin- 
ware is made by reducing asphalt or black varnish with 
turpentine to the desired consistency. It is to be kept in a 
corked bottle. When wanted for use the bottle is shaken, 
wlien the cork can be withdrawn and held varnish side up, 
and the pen filled from the varnish on the cork. The ink 
is recommended for marking cutlery and other bright arti- 
cles as well as tinware. It can be removed by means of 
rag dipped in coal oil or turpentine. 

Another Ink can be made by reducing shellac varnish 
with alcohol, and adding a sufficient quantity of the 
finest lamp black. This forms a jet black, lustreless ink, 
which is insoluble in water, but can be removed by a drop 
of alcohol. It should be kept in a tightly corked bottle, 
and can be reduced at any time by adding alcohol. 

The following is recommended for marking on tin plates: 
Mix together without the use of heat, i part of pine soot 
with 60 parts of solution of nitrate of copper in water. 

Red Itik for Rubber Stamps. — Pour over 45 parts of an- 
iline red 150 parts of boiling water, stir the mixture, and 
after allowing it to stand for some time, strain off the su- 
pernatant clear fluid. To the sediment add as much glycer- 
in? as necessary, to give it the desired consistency. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 261 

Ink for Brass Stamps. — Dissolve i6 parts of, aniline 
(red, blue, etc.) in 80 parts of boiling water, and then add 
with vigorous stirring 7 parts of glycerine and 3 of mo- 
lasses. 

Indelible Ink for Stamps. — Mix intimately 16 parts of 
linseed oil varnish, 6 of the finest quality of lamp black, 
and 5 of chloride of iron. 

ResJia7pening Files. — Well-worn files are first carefully 
cleaned with hot water and soda; they are then placed in 
connection with the positive pole of a battery, in a bath 
composed of 40 parts of sulphuric acid and 1,000 of 
water. The negative is formed of a copper spiral sur- 
rounding the files, but not touching them ; the coil termin- 
ates in a wire which rises towards the surface. When the 
files have been in the bath 10 minutes, they are taken out, 
washed and dried, when the whole of the hollows will be 
found to have been attacked in a very sensible manner ; 
but should the effect not be sufficient, they are replaced in 
the bath for the same period as before. Sometimes two 
operations are necessary, but seldom more. The files thus 
treated are to all appearances like new ones, and are said 
to be good for 60 hours' work. Twelve medium Bunsen 
elements are employed for the batteries. 

To Repair Broken Belting. — Broken belting can be re- 
united by the use of clirome glue. With a lap of 4 or 5 
inches, tlie reunited |;)art is apparently as firm as any part 
of tlie band, tliough it is well to take the precaution to 
tack down tlie ends of the lapped pieces with a few stitches 
of stout thread. The chrome glue is prepared as follows: 
Take 100 parts glue, soaked 12 hours in water, then pour 
off the remaining water, melt the glue, add 2 per cent, of 
glycerine- and 3 per cent, of red chromate of potash, melt- 
ing them with the glue. This mixture, thinned by warm- 
ing, is applied to the lapped ends after having been rough- 
ened with a rasp, and then placed between two hard wood 



262 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

strips in a vice and well pressed. Leave the lapped ends 
for 24 hours in the vice to become thoroughly dried. 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Bar of Iron. — The average breaking weight of a bar of 
wrought iron, i inch square, is 25 tons ; its elasticity is 
destroyed, however, by about two-fifths of that weight, or 
10 tons. It is extended within the limits of its elasticity, 
.000096, or one-tenthousandth part of an inch for every 
ton of strain per square inch of sectional area. Hence, 
the greatest constant load should never exceed one-fifth of 
its breaking weight or 5 tons for every square inch of sec- 
tional area. 

The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with 
cast iron is as 14 to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron 
bars, 3 inches deep, 11. 2 inches thick, and 2iZ ii'iches be- 
tween the supports, will carry 41^ tons. 

Bridges. — The greatest extraneous load on a square foot 
is about 120 pounds. 

Floors. — The least load on a square foot is about 160 
pounds. 

Roofs. — Covered with slate, on a square foot, 51^ 
pounds. 

Beams. — When a beam is supported in the middle and 
loaded at each end, it will bear the same weight as when 
supported at both ends and loaded in the middle; that is, 
each end will bear half the weight. 

Cast Iron Bea?ns should not be loaded to more than one- 
fifth of their ultimate strength. 

The strength of similar beams varies inversely as their 
lengths; tliat is, if a beam 10 feet long will support 1,000 
pounds, a similar beam 20 feet long would support only 
500 pounds. 

A beavi supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth 
part the weight which it would if supported at both ends. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 263 

When a heavi is fixed at both ends, and loaded in the 
middle, it will bear one- half more than it will wlien loose 
at both ends. When the beam is loaded uniformly through- 
out it will bear double. When the beam is fixed at both 
ends, and loaded uniformly, it will bear triple jthe weight. 

In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direc- 
tion ^ its strength or strain will be equal to that of a beam 
of the same breadth, thickness, and material, but only of 
the length of the horizontal distance between the points 
of support. 

In the construction of beams, it is necessary that their 
form should be such that they will be equally strong 
throughout. If a beam be fixed at one end, and loaded 
at the other, and the breadth uniform throughout its 
length, then, that the beam maybe equally strong through- 
out, its form must be that of a parabola. This form is 
generally used in the beams of steam engines. 

When a beam is regularly diminished towards the points 
that are least strained, so that all the sections are similar 
figures, whether it be supported at each end and loaded in 
the middle, or supported in the middle and loaded at each 
end, the outline should be a cubic parabola. 

When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the 
same breadth throughout, then, if the load be uniformly 
distributed throughout the length of the beam, tlie line 
bounding the compressed side should be a semi-ellipse. 

The same form should be made use of for the rails of a 
wagon-way, where they have to resist the pressure of a load 
rolling over them. 

Similar //rtr/(?j" of the same thickness, either supported at 
the ends or all round, will carry the same weight, either 
uniformly distributed or laid on similar points, whatever be 
their extent. 

The lateral strength of any beam, or bar of 7vood, stone, 
metal, etc., is in proportion to its breadth multiplied by 



264 TIN, SHEET-IKON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

two-thirds of its depth. In square beams the lateral 
strengths are in proportion to the cubes of the sides, and 
in general of like-sided beams as the cubes of the similar 
sides of the section. 

The lateral strength of any bea7?i or bar, one end being 
fixed in the wall and the other projecting, is inversely as 
the distance of the weight from the section acted upon ; 
and the strain upon any section is directly as the distance 
of the weight from that section. 

The absolute strength of I'opes or bars, pulled lengthwise, 
is in proportion to the squares of their diameters. All 
cylindrical or prismatic rods are equally strong in every 
part, if they are equally thick; but if not, they will break 
where the thickness is least. 

The strength oid^tube, ox hollow cylinder, is to the strength 
of a solid one as the difference between the fourth powers 
of the exterior and the interior diameters of the tube, di- 
vided by the exterior diameter, is to the cube of the diam- 
eter of a solid cylinder — the quantity of matter in each 
being the same. Hence, from this it will be found, that a 
hollow cylinder is one-half stronger than a solid one having 
the same weight of material. 

The strength of a column to resist being crushed is di- 
rectly as the square of the diameter, provided it is not so 
long as to have a chance of bending. This is true in metals 
or stone, but in timber the proportion is rather greater than 
the square. 

Models Proportiofied fo Machines. — The relation of mod- 
els to machines, as to strength, deserves the particular 
attention of the mechanic. A model may be perfectly 
proportioned in all its parts as a model ; yet the machine, 
if constructed in the same proportion, will not be suffi- 
ciently strong in every part ; hence, particular attention 
should be paid to the kind of strain the different parts are 



STEENGTH OF MATERIALS. 265 

exposed to ; and from the statements which follow, the 
proper dimensions of the structure may be determined. 

If the strain to draw asunder in the model be i, and if 
the structure is 8 times larger than the model, then the 
stress on the structure will be 8^ equal 512. If the 
structure is 6 times as large as the model, then the stress 
on the structure will be 6^ equal 216, and so on ; there- 
fore, the structure will be much less firm than the model ; 
and this the more, as the structure is cube times greater 
than the model. If we wish to determine the greatest size 
we can make a machine of which we have a model, we 
have — 

The greatest weight which the beam of the model can 
bear, divided by the weight which it actually sustains, equals 
a quotient which, when multiplied by the size of the beam 
in the model, will give the greatest possible size of the 
same beam in the structure. 

Ex. — If a beam in the model be 7 inches long, and bears 
a weight of 4 lbs., but is capable of bearing a weight of 26 
lbs., what is the greatest length which we can make the 
corresponding beam in the structure ? Here 

26 H- 4 = 6.5 ; therefore, 6.5 X 7 = 45-5 inches. 

The strength, to resist crushing, increases from a model 
to a structure, in proportion to their size; but, as above, 
the strain increases as the cubes ; wherefore, in this case, 
also, the model will be stronger than the machine, and the 
greatest size of the structure will be found by employing 
the square root of the quotient in the last rule, instead of 
the quotient itself ; thus: 

If the greatest weight which the column in a model can 
bear is 3 cwt., and if it actually bears 28 lbs. ; then, if 
the column be 18 inches high, we have : 

V (W) = 3-464; wherefore 3.464 X 18 = 62.352 
inches, the length of the column in the structure. 

Ztst of Metals, arranged according to their Strength. — 



2GG TIN, SHEET-IEON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Steel, wrought iron, cast iron, platinum, silver, copper, 
brass, gold, tin, bismuth, zinc, antimony, and lead. 

According to- Tredgold's and Duleau's experiments, a 
piece of the best bar iron i square inch across the end, 
would bear a weight of about 77,363 lbs., while a similar 
piece of cast iron would be torn asunder by a weight of 
from 16,243 to 19,464 lbs. Thin iron wires, arranged 
parallel to each other, and presenting a surface at their 
extremity of i square inch, will carry a mean weight of 
126,340 lbs. 

List of Woods, Arranged According to their Stroigth. — 
Oak, alder, lime, box, pine {sylv.'), ash, elm, yellow pine, 
and fir. 

A piece of well-dried pine wood, presenting a section of 
I square inch, is able, according to Eytelwein, to support 
a weight of from 15,646 lbs. to 20,408 lbs., whilst a similar 
piece of oak will carry as much as 25,850 lbs. 

Hempen cords, twisted, will support the following weights 
to the square inch of their section : 

One-quarter to one inch thick, 8,746 lbs. ; i to 3 inches 
thick, 6,800 lbs. ; 3 to 5 inches thick, 5,345 lbs. ; 5 to 7 
inches thick, 4,860 lbs. 

Tredgold gives tlie following rule for finding the weight 
in pounds which a hempen rope will be capable of support- 
ing : Multiply the square of the circumference in inches 
by 200, and the product will be the quantity sought. 

In the practical application of these measures of abso- 
lute strength, that of metals should be reckoned at one- 
half, and that of woods and cords at one-third of their 
estimated value. 

In a parallelopipedon of uniform thickness, supported 
on two points and loaded in tlie middle, the lateral strength 
is directly as the product of the breadth into the square of the 
depth, and inversely as the length. Let W represent the 
lateral strength of any material, estimated by the weight,^ 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 267 

h the breadth, and d the depth of its end, and / the dis- 
tance between the points of support ; then ]V= fd^b -f- 4/. 

If the parallelopipedon be fastened only at one end in a 
horizontal position, and the load be applied at the opposite 
end, W^fd'^b -^ 4/. 

It is to be observed that the three dimensions, b d and /, 
are to be taken in the same measure, and that b be so great 
that no lateral curvature arise from the weight ; /" in each 
formula represents the lateral strength, which varies in dif- 
ferent materials, and which must be learned experimentally. 

A beam having a rectangular end, whose breadth is two 
or three times greater than the breadth of another beam, 
has a power of suspension respectively two or three times 
greater than it ; if the end be two or three times deeper 
than the end of the other, the suspension power of that 
which has the greater depth exceeds the suspension power 
of the other four or nine times; if its length be two or 
three times greater tlian the length of another beam, its 
power of suspension will be one-half and one-third, respec- 
tively, that of the other; provided, that in each case, the 
mode of suspension, the position of the weight, and other 
circumstances be similar. Hence it follows that a beam, 
one of whose sides tapers, has a greater power of suspen- 
sion if placed on the slant than on the broad side, and that 
the powers of suspension in both cases are in the ratio of 
their sides ; so, for instance, a beam, one of whose sides 
is double the width of the other, will carry twice as much 
if placed on a narrow side, as it would if laid on the 
wide one. 

In a piece of round timber (a cylinder) the power of sus- 
pension is in proportion to the diameters cubed, and in- 
versely as the length ; thus a beam with a diameter two or 
three times longer than that of another, will carry a weight 
of 8 or 27 times heavier, respectively, than that whose 



268 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

diameter is unity, the mode of fastening and loading it 
being similar in both cases. 

The lateral strength of square timber is to that of a tree 
whence it is hewn as lo : 17 nearly. 

A considerable advantage is frequently secured by using 
hollow cylinders instead of solid ones, which, with an equal 
expenditure of materials, have far greater strength, provided 
only that the solid part of the cylinder be of a sufficient 
thickness, and that the workmanship be good; especially 
that in cast metal beams the thickness be uniform, and the 
metal free from flaws. According to Eytelwein, such hol- 
low cyliders are to solid ones of equal weight of metal, as 
1.212 : I, when the inner semi-diameters are to the outer a?. 
1:2; according to Tredgold as 17: 10, when the two semi- 
diameters are to each other as 15 : 25 ; and as 2:1, when 
they are to each other as 7 : 10. 

A method of increasing the suspensive power of timber 
supported at both ends, is to saw down from one-third to 
one-half of its depth, and forcibly drive in a wedge of 
metal or hard wood, until the timber is slightly raised at 
the middle out of the horizontal line. By experiment it 
was found that the suspensive power of a beam thus cut 
one- third of its depth was increased i-igth, when cut one- 
half it was increased i-29th, and when cut three-fourths 
through it was increased i-87th. 

The force required to crush a body increases as the sec- 
tion of the body increases; and this quantity being con- 
stant, the resistance of the body diminishes as the height 
increases. • 

According to Eytelwein's experiments, the strength of 
columns or timbers of rectangular form in resisting com- 
pression is as : 

I. The cube of their thickness (the lesser dimension of 
their section). 2. As the breadth (the greater dimension 
of their section). 3. Inversely as the square of their length. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 269 

Cohesive Power of Bars of Metal One Inch Square, in Tons, 

Iron, Swedish bar 29.20 

Iron, Russian bar. .,..,... .26.70 

Iron, English bar 25.00 

Steel, cast 59-93 

Steel, blistered 59-43 

Steel, sheer 56.97 



Copper, wrought l5-8o 

Gun metal 16.23 

Copper, cast , . 8.51 

Brass, cast, yellow 8.01 

Iron, cast 7.87 

Tin, cast 2.1 1 



Relative Strength of Cast and Malleable Iron. — It has 
been found, in the course of the experiments made by Mr. 
Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn, that the average strain 
tliat cast iron will bear in the way of tension, before break- 
ing, is about 71^ tons per square inch ; the weakest in the 
course of sixteen trials, on various descriptions, bearing 6 
tons, and the strongest 9^ tons. The experiments of 
Telford and Brown show that malleable iron will bear, on 
an average, 27 tons; the weakest bearing 24, and the 
strongest 29 tons. On approaching the breaking point, 
cast iron may snap in an instant, without any previous 
symptom, while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half 
its breaking weight, and so continues to stretch till it breaks. 
The experiinents of Hodgkinson and Fairbairn show also 
that cast iron is capable of sustaining compression to the 
extent of nearly 50 tons on the square inch — the weakest 
bearing ^^^^2 tons, and the strongest 60 tons. In this re- 
spect, malleable iron is much inferior to cast iron. With 
12 tons on the square inch it yields, contracts in length, 
and expands laterally; though it will bear 27 tons, or more, 
without actual fractin^e. 

Method of Testing Metals — The method is, in general, as 
follows : Cut from the bar or mass to be tested, pieces 
about 31^ or 4 inches long, and turn them off in the mid- 
dle to a diameter of one-half inch for iron and brass, and 
^.hree-eighths if of steel ; make this neck i inch long. A 
square head is left at each end. Secure the piece vertically 
and firmly by one end in a strong vise ; fit a solid-ended 
wrench to the other end of the test-piece ; and to the ex- 



270 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

tremity of the handle — which should be, for convenience, 
about five feet long — attach a spring-balance capable of 
recording with accuracy up to 50 or 60 lbs. 

Paint the scale of tlie balance with white lead or tallow, 
and spring the pointer so as to just touch the painted sur- 
face. The mark traced by the pointer then indicates the 
maximum force applied. 

Commence pulling steadily on the balance, keeping the 
direction of pull at right angles to the wrench-handle. 

An apparently unyielding resistance will be felt up to a 
certain point, when the test- piece will commence observ- 
ably to give way. Note the indication of the spring- 
balance at this point, which is the limit of elasticity, and 
record both that reading and, if possible, the distance 
through which the piece has twisted — the latter measure 
bemg an indication of its stiffness. Continue twisting the 
piece until it has gone some distance beyond the limit of 
its elasticity ; then stop and notice how far the arm springs 
back while gradually taking off the twisting force. 

This distance is a measure of the elasticity of the metal, 
and is usually, if not invariably, the same, however great the 
set, even up to the point of rupture. 

Renew the twisting force and break off the piece, noting 
the maximum angle which the piece has been twisted 
through and the maximum resistance, as indicated by the 
spring-balance. 

^\\t stiffness of the metal is measured by the force re- 
quired to twist it through the first small angle, say 5°, 
should it yield so far without set. For one-half inch iron, 
this should be about 50 lbs., on the end of a lever five feet 
long. For tool steel it should be about 30 lbs., where the 
neck has a diameter of three-eighths inch. 

The limit of elasticity is determined by the force required 
to give it its earliest set. 

The degree of elasticity is measured by the distance 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 271 

through which the wrench springs back when the force is 
removed after producing set. 

I'he ultimate tensile strength is approximately propor- 
tioned to the force producing rupture by torsion. 

The limit of elasticity for tensile strength is proportioned 
to the force producing set by torsion. 

The ductility of the metal is measured by the angle through 
which the piece twists before breaking. 

The power of resisting shock, or resilience, as it is called 
by engineers, is nearly proportioned to the product ob- 
tained by multiplying the breaking force by the maximum 
angle of torsion. 

The homogeneity of the metal is determined by the regu- 
larity with which the resistance of the piece increases when 
passing its limit of elasticity. 

By taking samples of well-known brands of metals, and 
pursuing this course, a standard is easily obtained, by refer- 
ence to which a little practice will enable the experimenter 
to learn readily, and quite accurately, the relative value of 
such other metals as he wishes to test. Next, taking the 
fractured pieces, a careful inspection will assist in pro- 
nouncing a correct judgment. 



TABLES OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



Strength of Chains. 



Conmion Close-linked Cable Chain. 






Breaking weight, in 


tons. 

i 






p 


Mean. 

1 


%^ 






<u 1 — 






rt 










i 


c 


S 


t/5 


«S 


C 




S 


^0 


r 


X 


1.8 


1.40 


1.60 


16.32 


H 


4.4 


3.00 


3.7« 


17.12 


A 


6.8 


6.15 


6.48 


21.55 


Yz 


8.4 


7-50 


7.91 


20.15 


y% 


13.0 


11.20 


12.10 


19.72 1 


H 


14.9 


14.00 


14.45 


18.46 1 


A 


16.5 


15-25 


i5-«7 


17.96 


\i 


21.4 


19-5 


20.60 


19.86! 


vA 


27.5 


21.0 


2514 


20.90 j 


I 


38.6 


26.0 


31.81 


20.15 


w^ 


35-0 


28. s 


31-30 


17.66 


^%\ 


52.0 


35-0 


46.19 


18.82 


^%\ 


63.5 


55-5 


60.62 


17-15 i 



4 

2 

4 
3 

2 
2 

3 
32 

[61 

3 

|3 
14 



Steel-linked Cable Chain. 



Wrought 


iron 




















annealed .... 
not annealed. 








1 








Lowmoor. . . . 



Yz 

'A 

'A 

I 



18.0 
27.0 

20.25 

21-75 
37-5 

34-5 



15-5 
20,0 

19.0 
20.5 
32.5 

26.0 



9 
13 
16 
22 
20, 
19, 
21, 

34- 
24. 

30- 
29. 

41- 



60 j 6 

-30; 6 
.91 2 
.91 I 6 
,90 20 
34I10 
54!io 

77 I 5 
40 I 6 

5413 
90 I 6 

75 



(272) 



STKENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

Table CoJiiimied. 



273 



Material. 



Wrought iron, Trinity 



Puddled 



Mild stee 
Cast stee 



steel, Firth's.. . 
Howell's. 
Mersey. . 



Mushet's. 
Bessemer. 



Brea 


<ing we 


£ 


a 




1 


<A 


.r^ 


% 


% 


94.0 


83.0 


90.7 


82.5 


83.6 


72.2 


1 00.0 


74.0 


123.0 


100.7 


1330 


II9-5 



Mean. 



40.38 
41.50 
59-58 
74-12 
88.50 
84.50 
80.10 

84-53 
92.88 

99-54 

13.90 

25.20 

4100 

39-75 

29-75 

37-75 

33-0 

35-0 



3 X. 

V3 C 



20.31 
20.87 
16.90 
15.40 
18.40 
17-56 
16.65 

17.75 
16.80 
15.80 
16.60 

15-74 
20.62 
20.00 
14.96 
18.98 
16.60 
17.61 



Strength and 


Weight of 


Short-linked Crane 


Chain. 


u 


Breaking 


Admiralty 


Maximum 


Working- 


Weight per 


s.s-g 


weight, 


proof-strain, 


safe-strain, 


Cranes, etc , 


fathom, 




tons. 


tons. 


tons. 


tons. 


lbs. 


%.... 


1.87 


•75 


•56 


■Zl 


4.5 




2-93 


1. 17 


.88 


.58 


6.0 


4.22 


1.69 


1.26 


.84 


10.5 


tV- ' • • 


5-74 


2.30 


1.72 


1-15 


12.0 


K- • • - 


7-50 


3.00 


2.25 


1.50 


18.0 


^\.... 


9.49 


3-80 


2.84 


1.90 


21.0 


H---. 


11.72 


4.69 


3-51 


2.34 


27.9 


H-.-. 


14.18 


5.67 


4-25 


2.83 


313 


¥•... 


16.87 


6.75 


5.06 


2.37 


36 


it---- 


19.80 


7.92 


5-94 


3-96 


42 



18 



274 TIN, SHEET-IPvON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 







Table 


Continued. 






Diameter 

in 

Indies. 


Breaking 

weight, 

tons. 


Admiralty- ^ Maximum 

prouf-sirain,' safe-strain, 

tons. tons. 


Working- 
strain for 
Cranes, etc., 
tons. 


Weight per 

fathom, 

lbs. 


I 

iK.... 


22.97 
26.37 
30.00 
33-87 
37-97 
42.30 
46-87 
51.68 
56.72 
62.00 
67.50 


9.19 

10.55 
12.00 

13-54 
15.1S 
16.92 
18.75 
20.67 
22.68 
24.80 
27.00 


6.89 

7.91 

9.00 

10.16 

11-39 
12.69 
14.06 
15-50 
17,01 
18.60 
20.25 


4-59 
5-27 
6.00 

6.77 
7.59 
8.46 

9-37 
10.33 
11-34 
12.40 

13-50 


50 
57 
65 

82 
91 

lOI 

no 

1 20 
130 
140 


Ratios = 


5-0 


2.0 


1-5 


I.O 





Strength and Weight of Steel-linked Cable Chain. 



Diameter 1 Breaking 
in ! weight, 
Inches. tons. 


Admiralty 

proof-strain, 

tons. 


Maximum 

safe-strain, 

tons. 


Weight per 
fathom, 

lbs. 


/^ ...... - 

16 

11 

i::::::; 

13 

B::::;:: 

Vi 

1 

lyi 

IX 

i^ 

'% 

^H 

^( 

1^ 

2 

^% 

2^ 

2>^ 

2^ -•• 


6.75 
8.54 
10.55 
12.76 
15.18 
17.82 
20.67 

23-73 
27.00 

30.48 
42.19 

51-05 

60.75 

71-30 

82.68 

94-92 

108.00 

121.92 

136.68. 

141-75 

168.75 


4.50 
5-75 
7-03 
8.52 
10.10 
11.9 

13-9 
15.8 
18.0 
22.9 
28.1 

34-1 

40.6 

47-6 
55-4 
63-3 
72.0 

81.3 

91.2 

101.7 

112.5 


3-51 
4-25 
5.06 

5-94 
6.89 
7.91 
9.00 
11-45 
14-05 
17.05 
20.30 
23-8 
27.7 
31.6 
36.0 
40.6 
45-6 
50.8 
56.2 


15 

19 

24 

28 

32 

37 

44 

49 

58 

72 

90 

no 

125 

145 

170 

19s 
230 
256 
285 

^f 
360 


R alios = . . 


3 


2 


I 





STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



275 



Strength of Iron 


Wire Ropes, 






Breaking 


Working 


Weight per 


Circumference. 


weight, 


load, 


fathom, 




cwt. 


cwt. 


lbs. 


I 


40 


6 


I 


^% 


80 


12 


2 


i^ 


120 


18 


3 


M 


160 


24 


4 


2^ 


200 


30 


5 


2>^ 


240 


36 


6 


2^ 


280 


42 


7 


3M 


320 


48 


8 


y/z 


400 


60 


10 


3^ 


480 


72 


12 


4 


560 


84 


14 


4^ 


640 


96 


16 


4>^ 


800 


120 


20 



6'/2(?J. 


iW?/ Wire Ropes. 




2K X >^ 


400 


44 


II 


2|4^X >^ 


540 


60 


15 


3XX H 


640 


72 


18 


314: x}^ 


800 


88 


22 


4^X^ 


1,000 


112 


28 


4>^ X ^ 


1,200 


136 


34 





Strength 


and Weight of Hempen Ropes. 






Ropes made with Registe 


". 




Weiglit 

per 
fathom. 

lbs. 






Girth in 
Inches. 


Breaking 
weight, 


Proof 
strain. 


Safe loads, cwt. 










cwt. 


cwt. 


Ordinary. 


Hoists, etc. 


^% 


0.1^0 


16.5 


5-5 


41 


2.4 


2 


0.88 


29-3 


9.8 


l-l 


4.9 


2;^ 


1.38 


45-7 


15.2 


11.4 


7.6 


3 


1.98 


66 


22 


16.5 


II. 


3K 


2.70 


90 


30 


22.5 


15.0 


4 


3-52 


117 


39 


29.2 


19-5 


4;^ 


4.46 


148 


49 


37.0 


24.7 


5 ^ 


550 


183 


61 


45-7 


30-5 


5K 


6.66 


221 


70 


55-2 


370 


6 


8.00 


263 


88 66 


44.0 


6K 


9-3 


309 


103 77 


51-5 


7 


10.8 


358 


119 


89 ] 


59-7 



276 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 
Table Continued. 







Ropes made with Regi>ter. 




Weight 














Girth in 
Inches. 


per 

fathom, 

lbs. 


Breaking 
weight, 


Proof 
strain, 


Safe loads, cwt. 










cwt. 


cwt. 

I 


Ordinary. 


Hoists, etc. 


V/z 


124 


412 


137 


103 


69 


8 


141 


468 


156 


117 


78 


9 


17.8 


593 


198 


148 


99 


lO 


22.0 


732 


244 


183 


122 


II 


26.6 


886 


295 


221 


144 


12 


0.50 


1054 


351 


264 


176 




Hand-laid Ropes, 


IK 


II-3 


3-8 


2.8 


1.9 


2 


0.88 


20.0 


6.7 


50 


3-3 


2K 


1.38 


313 


10.4 


7.8 


5-2 


3 


1.98 


45-1 ■ 


15.0 


113 


7-5 


3>^ 


2.70 


60,6 


20.2 


151 


10 I 


4 


3-52 


78 


26.0 


19-5 


13.0 


4K 


4.46 ' 92 


30-7 


23.0 


15-3 


5 


5.50 118 


393 


29-5 


19.7 


5;^ 


6.66 138 


46 


34-5 


23.0 


6 


8.00 162 


54 


40.5 


27.0 


6K 


9-3 I 183 


61 


45.7 


305 


7 


10.8 205 


68 


51.2 


34.1 


7K 


12.4 223 


74 


56.0 


37-2 


8 


14. 1 240 


80 


■ 60.0 


40.0 


Ratios. 1 ' 6 


2 


..5 


I 


Strength of Dj'awn Lead Pipes of the Ordinary 


Standard 




Weights. 






1 


Weight in lbs. i Pressure in feet 


of Water. 


<u 






Worl 


ing head. 


(D 

s 
5 




1 


Per 15 

feet. 


Per 
f^^jl. Bursting. 






Ordinar 


With 
>■• shock. 


Vz 


.0881 


12 


0.800 1700 


170 


i 85 


Yz 


.1067 


15 


i.ooo 1978 


198 


1 100 


% 


•1356 


20 


1-330 2367 


236 


118 


% 


.i486 


22 


1.467 2525 


252 


126 


% 


.1060 18 


1.200 1649 


165 


i 82 



STEENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



277 



Table Continued. 







Weight in lbs. 


Pressure in feet of Water, 










Working head. 


<v 


5 


Per 15 

feet. 


Per 






rt 


o 


foot. 


Bursting. 




With 
shock. 


Q 


H 








Ordinary. 


% 


1264 


22 


1.467 


1898 


190 


95 


% 


1503 


27 


1.800 


2169 


217 


108 


H 


1105 


22 


1.467 


1466 


147 


11 


X 


1236 


25 


1.667 


1610 


. 161 


80 


U 


1365 


28 


1.867 


1745 


174 


87 


U 


1525 


32 


2.133 


1906 


191 


96 


K 


1695 


36 


2.400 


2068 


207 


104 


Ya 


1810 


39 


2.600 


2173 


217 


109 




1370 


36 


2.400 


1378 


138 


69 


I 


1570 


42 


2.800 


1545 


155 


78 


' 


2010 


56 
per 12 ft. 


?>-iy:> 


1888 


189 


95 


IX 


1610 


42 


3 500 


1307 


131 


66 


iX 


1945 


52 


4-333 


1535 


154 


77 


iX 


2300 


63 


5-250 


1760 


176 


88 


iK 


162c; 


50 


4.167 


1123 


112 


56 


iK 


1800 


56 


4.667 


1228 


123 


62 


i>^ 


2250 


72 


6.000 


1488 


149 


75 


i>^ 


2580 


84 


7.000 


1672 


167 


84 


IX 


1940 


70 


5-833 


1 146 


115 


58 


X 


2220 


81 


6.750 


1290 


129 


65 


iX 


2435 


90 


7.500 


1396 


140 


70 


2 


2055 


84 


7.000 


1067 


107 


54 


2 


2320 


96 


8.000 


1 193 


119 


60 


2 


2670 


112 


9-333 


1347 


135 


68 



Strength of Timbers to Resist Crushing Strains, in Founds 
and Tons, per Square Inch. 



Kind of Timber. 


Maxim'm 
dry, 
lbs. 


Minim'm 
ordinary 
slate, lbs. 


Mean. 


Ratio of 


lbs. tons. 


to col. 2, 




6,960 

9,363 

7,518 

9,363 
6,402 


6,831 
8,683 
7.518 
7,733 
3,297 


6,8q6 , -2-08 


I 02 


Ash 


9,023 
7,518 
8,548 
4,850 


4-03 
3-36 
3.81 
2.16 


1.08 


Baywood 

Beech 

Birch, English 


I.OO 
1. 21 
1.94 



278 TIN, SHEET-IRON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKER. 

Table Continued. 



Kind of Timber, 



Birch, American 

Box 

Cedar 

Crab-tree 

Deal, red 

Deal, white 

Elder 

Elm 

Fir, spruce 

Hornbeam 

Mahogany 

Oak, English . . . 
Oak, Quebec . . . 
Oak, Dantzic , . . 

Pine, pitch 

Pine, yellow, . . . 

Pine, red 

Plum 

Poplar 

Sycamore 

Teak 

Larch 

Walnut 

Willow 



Maxim'm Minim'm 
dry, I ordinary 
lbs. state, lbs. 



Mean. 



11,663 

9>97i 
5,863 
7,148 
6,586 
7.293 
9,973 

10,331 
6,819 
7,289 
8,198 

10,058 
5,982 

7,731 
6,790 

5,445 

7,518 
10,493 

5,124 

9,207- 
12,101 

5.568 

7,227 

6,128 I 



8,970^ 
7,670- 

5,674 
6,499 
5,748 
6,781 

7,451 

7,950" 

6,499 

4,533 

8,198 

6,484 

4,231 

5,950'' 

6,790 

5,375 
5,395 
8,241 

3,107 

7,082 

9,310- 

3,201 

6,063 

2,8q8 



Ratio of 
column I 



lbs. 


tons. 


.OC 


10,316 


4.60 




8,820 


3-94 




5,768 


2.58 




6,824 


3-05 




6,167 


2.75 




7,037 


3-H 




8,712 


389 




9,140 


4.08 




6,659 


2.97 




5,911 


2.64 




8,198 


3.66 




8,271 


3-69 




5,106 


2.28 




6,840 


3-05 




6,790 


3-03 




5,410 


2.41 




6,457 


2.88 




9^367 


4.18 




4,116 


1.84 




8,144 


3-67 




10,706 


4.78 




4,385 


1.96 




6,645 


2.97 


T 
*• 


4,513 


2.02 


2. 



^ Calculated from the general ratio of the experiments in columns 
and 2, which is 1.3 to i.o. 



Table of the Strength, Extensibility a?id Stiffness of Metals, 
Cast Iron being i, or Unity. 



Metals. 


Strength. 


Extensibility. 


Stiffness. 


Iron, wroucrht 


1. 12 

0.65 

0.435 
0.365 
0.182 
0.096 


0.86 
125 
0.9 

0.5 
0.75 

2-5 


1-3 

0.535 

0.49 

0.76 

0.25 

0.385 


Gun metal. 


Brass 

Zinc 


Tin 

Lead 





STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



279 



Table of the Strength, Exte?isibility and Stiff?iess of Woods ^ 
Cast Iron being i, or Unity. 



Woods. 


Strength. 


Extensibility. 


Stiffness. 


Oak 


0.25 
0.23 
0.21 

0-3 

0.15 

0.24 


2.8 
2.6 

2-9 

2.6 
2.1 
2.9 


0.093 

0.089 

0.073 

0.1154 

0.073 

0.487 


Ash 


Elm 


Pine, yellow .... 


Beech 


Mahogany, Honduras. . . . 



Effect of Renielti7ig on the Strength of Cast Iron. 


Number 

of 
Melting. 


Transverse 

strength, 4;^ ft. 

bars, I inch 

square. 


Crushing 

strength per 

square 

inch. 


Calculated 

tensile strength 

per square 

inch. 


I 


Tons. 

.2187 

•1973 

•1793-^ 

.1846 

.1927 

.1959 
.2005 
.2192 
.2440 

.2531 

.2910 

.3090* 

.2834 

.2700 

.1657 

.1568 

.1396 


Tons. 

44.0 

43-6 

41. 1 

40.7* 

41.1 

41. 1 

40.9 

41. 1 

55-1 

57-7 

69.8 

73-1 
66.0 

95-9* 
76.7 

70.5 
88.0 


Tons. 
9.502 
8.217 

7-351* 

7.697 

8.isi 


2 


■2 


4 


5 


6 


8-349 
8.655 
9.847 
10.07 
10.40 
II. 71 
12.51* 
11-54 
9-154 
5.366 
5.116 


7 


8 


Q 


10 


II 


12 


11 


14 


IC. 


16 


17 


18 


4.196 





Note. — Maximum and minimum results marked ^, 

It would seem from all this that the method of obtaining 
increased strength by remelting cast iron is very uncertain. 
It will also be expensive in fuel, labor and waste of metal. 
With iron such as that in 5, where the mean tensile strength 
was increased from i to 18.26 ~- 5.6 = 3.26 at the fourth 



280 TIN, SHEET-mON AND COPPER-PLATE WORKEH. 



melting, it would no doubt be commercially advantageous. 
In such a case experiments should be especially made on 
the iron to be used. 

By maintaining cast iron in a state of fusion for length- 
ened periods, the tensile strength is greatly increased ; thus 
with iron twice remelted and kept in fusion for 

0123 hours, 
the tensile strength was 

15,861 20,420 24,383 25,733 lbs. 

per square inch. In another experiment, the time being = 

^ I i^ 2 hours; 

the tensile strength = 

17,843 20,127 24,387 34,496 lbs. 

Table Showing the Average Crushing Load of Different 
Materials, or the Weight mider which they will Crimible. 



Lbs. per sq. inch. 

Alder 6,900 

Ash 8,600 

Beech. 7,600 

Cedar S^J^io 

Elm 10,000 

Fir-spruce 6,500 

Hickory, white 8,925 

Hornbeam 4,500 

Larch 3?20o 

Locust 9,113 

Maple 8,150 

Oak 4,200 

Oak, English 6,500 

Pine, pitch 6,800 

Pine, American yellow.. .. 5,300 

Poplar 5,100 

Plum 3,700 

Sycamore. 7,000 

Teak 1 2,000 

Table Showing the Tensile Strength, or the Strain that will 
Pull Different Metals Asunder on a Straight Pull. 
Lbs. per sq. inch. 

, 1 ,000 

3,200 



Lbs. per sq. inch. 

Walnut 6,000 

Willow 2,900 

Cast iron, American 174,803 

Low Moor, English 62,450 

Wrought iron 38,000 

Steel, cast 225,000 

Steel, tempered 337,800 

Copper, cast 1 17,000 

Brass, cast. . . 164,800 

Tin, cast 15,500 

Lead 7,73© 

Hard brick 2,000 

Crown glass 31,000 

Granite, English , 10,360 

Portland cement 15,000 

Freestone, Conn 3,522 

Marble, American 18,061 

Roman cement 342 



Antimony . 
Bismuth.. . 

Brass, cast 18,000 

Copper, cast 19,000 



Lbs. per sq. inch. 

Gun metal 96,000 

Iron, cast 1 7,900 

Wrought iron, bar 5 7 500 

Wrought iron, good 60,000 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



281 



Table Showing the Tensile Strength or the Strain that will 
Pull Different Metals Asunder on a Straight Full. 

Lbs. per sq. inch. 
Wrought iron, superior. . . . 70,000 
Wrought iron, best Amer'n. 76,160 
Wrought iron, Low Moor. 60,000 
Wrought iron, boiler plate. 45,000 

Steel plates, English 78,000 

Steel plates, American 94,450 

Steel plates, Bessemer, 

American 98,600 

Bessemer steel, tool 1 12,000 



Lbs. per sq. inch. 
Steel, bar— Black Diamond, 

American 120,700 

Steel, tempered 2 14,400 

Chrome steel, American . . 180,000 

Silver, cast 41,000 

Tin, block 4,600 

Zinc, cast 2,800 

Zinc, sheet . 16,000 

Zinc, wire 22,000 



Lbs. 



Alder 

Ash 

Birch 

Bay wood . . . . , 

Beech 

Bamboo 

Boxwood. . . . 

Cedar 

Chestnut .... 

Cypress 

Elder 

Elm . 

Fir or Spruce 

Hazel 

Holly 



per sq 



Table Showing the Tensile Strength of Different Kinds of 

Wood. 

Lbs. per sq. inch. 

Hickory 1 1 ,000 

Lignum-vitae 1 1,000 

Larch 7,000 

Locust 18,000 

Maple 10,000 

Mahogany 8,000 

Oak 10,000 

Pear 10,000 

Pine 10,000 

Poplar 7,000 

Sycamore 12,000 

Teak 15,000 

Walnut 8,000 

Yew : ... 8,000 



inch. 
14,000 
16,000 
15,000 
12,000 
11,500 

6,000 
20,000 

7,000 
13,000 

6,000 
10,000 

6,000 
10,000 
18,000 
16.000 



INDEX 



A-bsorbent or radiating and reflect- 
ing powers of substances, 150. 
Acid, dipping, 246, 247. 
Addition, sign of, 110. 
Aich or sterro-inetal, 225. 
Air, 157-159. 

density or weiglit of, 157, 158. 
* effects produced by, 157. 
pressure of, 157. 
specific heat of, 158. 
table of the expansion of, by 
heat, 158. 
Alcohol, 190. 

Alloy, melting point of an, 223. 
Alloys, characteristics of, 223. 

fusing points of metals and 
other elements employed in, 
148. 
important metallic, 223-235. 
of copper and tin, 226-230. 
of copper and zinc, 224, 225. 
of copper, zinc and nickel, 230. 
of the noble metals, 232. 
readily fusible, 231. 
various, 232-235. 
Aluminium bronze, 229, 230. 
bronze, solder for, 237. 
solders for, 236, 237. 
Amber, 188. 

varnishes, 198-200. 
American lap weld iron boiler 

flues, 169. 
Ammonia-shellac cement, 219, 220. 
Angle at centre, definition of, 113. 
at circumference, definition of, 

113. 
right, to trisect a, 99. 
to bisect any given, 98. 
Angles, table of, relative to the 
construction of regular poly- 
gons, 113. 
Anime, 188. 

Apparatus, impervious cement for, 
222. 



Aquarium stand, pattern for an, 

53-56. 
Aqueduct pipes or fountains, 

calibre and weights of, 169. 
Arc, definition of an, 114. 

of a circle, to find the length 

of any, 115, 116. 
or segment of a circle of large 

radii, to describe an, 101. 
Arch, elliptic, to describe an, 102. 
Architectural ornaments, cement 

for making, 217. 
Area and circumferences of circles, 

127-134. 
Argentan, 230. 
Arithmetical signs, definition of, 

110. 
Armenian or diamond cement, 215, 

216. 
Art-bronze, 226. 
Atmosphere, pressure of one, 157. 

Balloons, varnish for, 209. 
Band saws, small, to join, 239. 
Bars, absolute strength of, 264. 

of metal, cohesive power of, 
269. 
Base, to find the, 112. 
Bath, hip or sitz, plan of a, 20-23. 

metal, 233. 

oblong taper, plan of a, 18-20. 
Beam, power of suspension of a, 

267. 
Benms, strength of, 262-264. 
Bearing metals for locomotives, 

232 233 
Bell metal, 226, 232. 
Bells of clocks, metal for, 232. 
Belting, broken, to repair, 261, 262. 

hose, etc., rivet metal for, 233. 
Benzoin, 188. 
Black grounds, 181, 182. 

japan, 182, 184. 

japau varnish, 210. 

(283) 



284 



INDEX. 



Black varnish, 200. 
Blades, cement for fastening, 222. 
Blanched copper, 234. 
Blue japan grounds, 182. 
Bodies, mensuration of solids and 
capacities of, 119-122. 

specific gravities of techni- 
cally important, 14f), 147. 
Boiled oil or linseed-oil varnish, 

208. 
Boiler cover, oval, 89. 

Hues, American lap weld iron, 
169. 
Boilers, cement for, 217. 
Borax for brazing, to prepare, 

239. 
Bottle corks, cement for, 218. 
Brass and copper, galvanizing of, 
254. 

and copper, to tin, 252. 

and similar alloys, 224, 225, 

best lacquer for, 213. 

best red, for fine eastings, 232. 

bronzed, lacquer for, 212. 

cast,' dipping acid for, 247. 

cement for fastening, to glass 
vessels, 222. 

cohesive jwwer of "bars of," 269. 

dipped, gold-colored lacquer 
for, 212, 213. 

dipped, lacquer for, 212. 

etching solution for, 259. 

good lacquer for, 213. 

hard, for casting, 232. 

lacquer, pale, 211. 

not dipped, gold colored lac- 
quer for, 212. 

olive bronze dip for, 248. 

or iron, bronze paint for, 248. 

ormolu dipping acid for, 247. 

ormolued, dipping acid for, 
246. 

pale lacquer for, 213. 

red, for turning, 232. 

red lacquer for, 213. 

rolled, 232. 

solder, soft, 240. 

stamps, ink for, 261. 

to temper or to draw its tem- 
per, 151. 

vinegar bronze for, 247, 248. 

weight of a square foot of, 
171. 

work, to prepare for ormolu 
dipping, 247. 



Brass, yellow, for turning, 232. 
Brazing, borax to prepare for, 239. 
Bridges, greatest load on, 262. 
Bristol metal or Prince metal, 225. 
Britannia metal, 230, 231, 233. 

ware, raised, white solder lor, 
236. 
Briiish gum, or dextrine, 245. 
J^ronze, 226. 

aluminium, 229, 230. 

aluminium, solder for, 237. 

art, 226. 

cobalt, 228, 229. 

dip, aquafortis, 248. 

dip, brown, 248. 

dip, green, 248. 

dip, olive, for brass, 248. 

for all kinds of metals, 248. 

for gilding, 234. 

manganese, 227, 228. 

paint for iron or brass, 248. 

paint, brown, for copper ves- 
sels, 248. 

phosphor, 227. 

silicon, 227. 

steel or Uchatius, 226. 

upon tin and tin allovs, 249. 
250. 

vinegar, for brass, 247, 248. 
Bronzing gas fixtures, 250, 251. 

gun-barrels, 248. 

plaster of Paris figures, 251. 
Brown and Telford, experiments 
by, 269. 

hard spirit varnislics, 197. 
Brunswick black. 182. 
Building, pij^e to fit the side of the 

roof of a, 74, 75. 
Bullet metal, 233. 
Busts and statuettes, plaster of 

paris, to cleanse, 251. 
Butt and mitre joints, 242. 

Cabinet makers, varnish for, 200. 

varnish, 195. 
Cable chain, steel-linked, streng^th 

and weight of, 274. 
chains, breaking weight of, 

272, 273. 
Calico printing, coppering of iron 

rollers for, 251, 252. 
Can top or deck flange, to describe 

a, 2, 3. 
Carriages, varnish for certain parts 

of, 200. 



INDEX. 



285 



Casks and cisterns, cement for, 221. 
Casting, hard brass for, 232. 

to obtain the weight of tlie, 
from that of the pattern, 
174, 175. 
Castings, cement for lioles in, 218. 

tine, best red brass for, 232. 

shrinkage of, 175, 176. 
Cast-iron cement, 249. 

-iron, etfect of remeiting on 
the strength of, 279, 280. 

-iron, expansion of, 174. 

-steel, composition used in 
wekling, 249. 
Casts, compound for, 259, 260. 
Cement, Armenian or diamond, 
215, 216. 

cheap, 218. 

china, 218. 

for bottle corks, 218. 

for cast-iron, 249. 

for cisterns and casks, 221. 

for coppersmiths and engi- 
neers, 218. 

for cracks in wood, 221, 222. 

for earthen and glassware, 
216. 

for electrical and chemical ap- 
paratus, 217. 

for fastening blades, files, "etc., 
222. 

for fastening brass to glass 
vessels, 222. 

for fractured bodies of all 
kinds, 221. 

for holes in castings, 218. 

for iron pots and pans, 220, 
221. 

for iron tubes, boilers, etc., 
217. 

for ivorv, mother of pearl, etc., 
218. 

for joining metal and wood, 
222. 

for leather, 220. 

for making architectural orna- 
ments, 217. 

for marble workers and cop- 
persmiths, 220. 

for stoneware, 216. 

for stone structures, 219. 

gasfitters', 222. 

good, 220. 

impervious, for apparatus, 
corks, etc., 222. 



Cement, iron-rust, 216, 217. 
Keene's marble, 223. 
Loudon mastic, 222, 223. 
Lowitz's, 223. 
marble, 220. 
Martin's, 223. 
metallic, 238. 
paint, hydraulic, 222. 
Parian, 223. 
plumbers', 218. 
roofing, 219. 
Sorel's, 222. 
Sorel's magnesia, 222. 
transparent, for glass, 220. 
varnish for water-tight luting, 

200. 
Cements, miscellaneous, 215-223. 
Chains, strength of, 272-274. 
Chemical and electrical apparatus 

cement, 217. 
China cement, 218. 
Chord, definition of a, 114. 
Chrysochalk, 225. 
Chrysorin, 225. 
Circle, general rules in relation to 

the, 114, 115. 
of greatest diameter in a tri- 
angle, 106, 107. 
of large radii, to describe an 

arc or segment of a, 101. 
or radius, to find the centre of 

a, 100. 
the, and its sections, 113, 114. 
to draw a tangent to a, 100. 
to draw lines tending towards 

the centre of a, 100. 
to describe a triangle in a, 99. 
to inscribe any in a, 103. 
to inscribe semicircles in a, 108. 
to find the area of a segment 

of a, 116. 
to find the area of the sector 

of a, 116. 
to find the centre of a, 99. 
to find the length of any arc 

of a, 99, 100, 115, 116. 
to find the diameter of a, 115. 
to form a, equal in area to an 

ellipse, 104. 
to form a triangle, equal in 

area to a, 105, 106. 
C'ircles, concentric, area of space 

between two, 117. 
tables of the circumference 

and area of, 127-134, 



286 



INDEX. 



Circular ring, to find the area of 
a, 117, 
roofs, etc., covering of, 30, 31. 
top and rectangle base, pattern 
for a tapering article with, 
44. 
top and square base, pattern 
for a tapering article with, 
41,42. 
Circumference and area of circles, 

tables of the, 127-134. 
Cisterns and casks, cement for, 

221. 
Clocks, metal for bells of, 232. 
Coach varnish, 200. 
Coaches, fine black varnish for, 

210. 
Coach makers, best body copal 

varnish for, 195, 19(3. 
Cobalt bronze, 228, 229. 
Cock metal, 233. 
Coffee pots, sizes of, 135. 
Colophony, 188. 
Coloring metals, cheap and quick 

method of, 254, 255. 
Colors and temperature in temper- 
ing, 151. 
Column, strength of a, 264. 
Columns, strength of, 268. 
Compasses and rule, to draw an 

ellipse with the, 92, 93. 
Cone, contents in U. 8. standard 
gallons of the frustum of a, 
121. 
frustum of a, sizes of tinware 

in the form of, 135, 136. 
or pyramid, to find tlie con- 
vex surface of a frustum of 
a, 118. 
or pvramid, to find the soliditv 

of a, 120. 
])attern or envelope for a frus- 
tum of a, 3, 4. 
right, or pyramid, to find the 

convex surface of a, 118. 
to describe a frustum of a, 

1, 2. 
to describe an envelope for 

a, 1. 
to find the radius and versed 
sine for a frustum of a, 95, 
96. 
to find the solidity of a frus- 
tum of a, 120, 121. 
Copal, 188, 189. 



Copal polish, 196. 
varnish, 180, 181. 
varnish, best body, for coach- 
makers, etc., 195, 196. 
varnish for inside work, 195. 
varnish, jajianners', 184. 
varnishes, 193-195. 
Copper and brass, galvanizing of, 
254. 
and brass, to tin, 252. 
blanched, 234. 
bolts, weight of, 126. 
cohesive power of bars of, 269. 
silvering powder for, 246. 
-tin alloys, 226-230. 
to separate silver from, 249. 
vessels, brown bronze paint 

tor, 248. 
weight of, 125, 126. 
weight of a square foot of, 171. 
-zinc alloys, 224, 225. 
-zinc alloys, color of, 225. 
-zinc alloys, composition of 

various, 225. 
zinc and nickel, alloys of, 
2.30. 
Coppering of iron rollers for calico 

printing, 251, 252. 
Coppersmiths and engineers, ce- 
ment for, 218. 
and marble-workers, cement 
for, 220. 
Cords, hem})en, strength of, 266. 
Corks, impervious cement for, 222. 
Cornice, OG, pattern for a mitre 

joint for a, 50-52. 
Cover or lamp top, octagon OG, 
pattern for a, 52, 53. 
or top, octagon or square, 90, 

91. 
or top, tapering octagon, pat- 
tern for, 46, 47. 
steamer, to describe a, 91, 92. 
Cramp joint, 243. 
Crane chain, strength and weight 

of, 273, 274. 
Crushins? load, average of different 

milter ials, 280. 
Crystal varnishes, 205. 
Cubed, to be, sign of, 110. 
Cubical form, solidity and capacity 

of any figure in the, 119. 
Cylin<ler, hollow, strength of a, 264. 
power of suspension of a, 267, 
268. 



INDEX. 



287 



Cylinder, to find the convex sur- 
face of a, 118. 
Cylinders, capacity of, in U. S. 
gallons, 137-145. 
to find the solidity of, 119, 120. 
Cylindroid, definition of a, 37. 

Dammar, 189. 
varnish, 208. 

Decimal equivalents of the frac- 
tional parts of a gallon, 143. 
equivalents to fractional parts 
of lineal measurement, 108, 
109. 

Deck fiange or can top, to describe 
a, 2, 3. 

Delta metal, 228. 

Dextrine or British gum, 245. 

Diameter of a circle, 113. 

Diamond or Armenian cement, 
215, 216. 

Dippers, sizes of, 135. 

Dipping acid, 246, 247. 

Dish kettles and pails, sizes of, 
135. 

Division, sign of, 110. 

Dome, to ascertain the outlines of 
a course of covering to a, 33. 
to cover a, 31, 32. 

Drills, to temper, 151, 152. 

Driving boxes, locomotive, brasses 
for, 233. 

Druggists' and liquor dealers' 
measures, 136. 

Duleau's and Tredgold's experi- 
ments, 266. 

Earthenware, cement for, 216. 
Earths and stones, specific gravity 

of, 146. 
Elbow at right angles, 78, 79. 

in five sections, pattern for an, 

84-87. 
in four sections, pattern for an, 

82-84. 
in three sections, pattern for 

an, 80, 81. 
pattern at any angle, 79, 80. 
tapering, pattern for an, 87, 
88. 
Elbows, 78-88. 
Electrical and chemical apparatus 

cement, 217. 
Electro-plating ])ewter surfaces, 
255, 256. 



Electrum, 230. 

Elemi, 189. 

Elements and metals, fusing points 

of, 148. 
Ellipse or oval, to describe an, 92. 
or oval, to find the area of an, 

117. 
or oval, to find the circum- 

ferejice of an, 117. 
to draw an, with the rule and 

compasses, 92, 93. 
to find the centre and the two 

axes of an, 94, 95. 
to form a circle equal iu area 
to,an, 104. 
E!lii)tic arch, to describe an, 102. 
Enamel for watch faces, 257. 
Enamelling metals, 256, 257. 
Engineers and coppersmiths, ce- 
ment for, 218. 
England, manufacture of tin plate 

in, 159-162. 
Engravings, maps, etc., varnishes 
for, 204. 
or lithographs, varnish to fix, 
on wood, 204. 
Envelope for a cone, 1. 
Equality, sign of, 110. 
Essence varnishes, 191. 
Etching solution for brass, 259. 

varnishes, 204. 
Expansive metal, 234. 
Eytelwein's experiments on the 
strength of columns, 268. 

Fairbairn and Hodgkinson, ex- 
periments by, 269. 
Figure having straight sides and 
semicircular ends, to draw 
a, 96. 
right-lined, quantity of surface 
in, 110, 111. 
, Files, cement for fastening, 222. 

reshar})ening of, 261. 
I Fish-kettle, ])attern for, 17, 18. 
1 Flange for a pipe, pattern for a, 

89, 90. 
I Flexible varnish, 207. 
I Floors, least load on, 262. 
I Fluids, specific gravity of, 147. 
i Folded angle joint, 242. 

Fountains or aqueduct pipes, cali- 
I bre and weights of, 169. 

French polish, to, 202, 203. 
' Fruit cans, sealing wax for, 246. 



288 



INDEX. 



Frustum of a cone, 1, 2. 

of a cone, contents in U. S. 

standard gallons of the, 121. 
of a cone or pyramid, to find 

the convex surface of a, 118. 
of a cone, pattern or envelope 

for a, 3, 4. 
of a cone, sizes of tinware in 

the form of, 135, 136. 
of a cone, to find the radius 

and versed sine for a, 95, 96. 
of a cone, to find the solidity 

of a, 120, 121. 
of an oblique pyramid, to de- 
scribe a, 23-28'. 
of a pyramid, solidity of the, 

121. 
Fusing points of metals and other 

elements, 148. 
Furniture cream, 203, 
gloss, 203. 
oils, 203. 
pastes, 203. 
polishes, 203. 
varnishes for, 201, 202. 

Gallon, decimal equivalents of the 
fractional parts of a, 143. 

Gallons, capacity of cylinders in, 
137-145. 

Galvanized iron, 166-169. 

Galvanizing brass and copper, 254. 

Gas bags, varnish for, 209. 
fitters' cement, 222. 
fixtures, to bronze, 250, 251. 
pipes, diameter and length of, 
172. 

Geometry, practical, 97-109. 

German silver, 230. 

Germany, manufacture of tin plate 
in, 162, 163. 

Gilded articles, Watin's varnish 
for, 200, 201. 

Gilding, bronze for, 234. 

Glass, cutting of, 244, 245. 

transparent cement for, 220. 
vessels, cement for fastening 
brass to, 222. 

Glassware, cement for, 216. 

Globe or sphere, to find the con- 
vex surface of a, 119. 

Glue, marine, 245. 

Glues, liquid, 245, 246. 

Gold and silver lace, to polish, 
257, 258. 



Gold, artificial, 234, 235. 

lacquer, 211. 

solder for, 236. 

solvent for, 249. 

varnish, 209. 

varnish, imitation of, 260. 
Gravers, to temper, 152. 
Gravity, specific, 145-147. 
Green japan grounds, 183. 
Gum copal, 180, 181. 
Gun-barrels, browning of, 246. 

-barrels, to bronze, 248. 

-metal, 226. 

-metal, cohesive power of bars 
of, 269. 
Gutta-percha varnish, 208. 
Gutters, patterns for a mitre joint 
for, 47-50. 

semicircular, 166. 

Harness, black varnish for, 208. 
Heat, 147-150. 

conducting power, internal, 

of bodies, 149. 
expansion of metals by, 149, 
latent, 148. 

specific, definition of, 147. 
s])ecific, of air, 158. 
specific, of water, 156. 
table of eft'ects of, u])on bodies, 

149. 
table of the expansion of air 

bv, 158. 
unit of, 147, 148. 
Hempen cords, strength of, 266. 
rope, rule for finding the 
weight capable of being sup- 
ported by a, 266. 
ropes, strength and weight of, 
275, 276._ 
Hip-bath or sitz-bath, ])lan of a, 

20-23. 
Hipped-roof, covering of a, 33-40. 
Hodgkinson and Fairbairn, experi- 
ments by, 269. 
Hood, pattern of a, 28-30, 
Hose, belting etc., rivet metal for, 

233. 
House pninting and japannin ; 

wainscot varnish for, 209. 
Hydraulic ajiplications, principle 
of, 158. 

Impressions, niefnl for taking, 2.^3. 
Indir. rul)ber vari)is))es, 2(^6-2(i8. 



INDEX. 



■289 



Ink for brass stamps, 261. 
indelible, for stamps, 261. 
red, for rubber stamps, 260. 
Inks for marking tinware, 260. 
Instruments, varnish for, 201. 
philosophical, lacquer for, 

213. 
Iron and steel, brown tint for, 256. 
and steel, soldering of, 239- 

241. 
and steel, varnishing articles 

of, 197, 198. 
cast and malleable, relative 

strength of, 269. 
cast, effect of reraelting on the 

strength of, 279, 280. 
cast, expansion of, 174. 
cast, strength of beams of, 

262. 
cohesive power of bars of, 

269. 
flat rolled, weight of, 123, 124. 
galvanized, 166-169. 
or brass, bronze paint for, 

248. 
pots and pans, cement for, 

220, 221. 
rollers for calico printing, 

coppering of, 251, 252. 
round rolled, weight of, 124, 

125. 
-rust cement, 216, 217. 
saucepans, to tin, 252, 253. 
sheet, weight of a square foot 

of, 171. 
square rolled, weight of, 123. 
tubes, cement for, 217. 
wire ropes, strength of, 275. 
work, black, 210. 
work, black varnish for, 198. 
work, varnish for, 198. 
wrought, expansion of, 174. 
wrought, strength of a bar of, 

262. 
wrought, weight of, 125, 1 26. 
Ivory, cement for, 218. 

Japan, black, 182-184. 

black, for leather, 184. 
finishing, 186, 187. 
ground, white, 179, 180. 
. grounds, blue, 182. 
grounds, green, 183. 
grounds, purple, 183, 184. 
scarlet, 182, 183. 

1^ 



Japan, tortoise-shell, 184, 185.' 

transparent, 184. 

work, painting of, 185. 
Japanese lacquer, imitation of, 

214, 215. 
Japan ners' copal varnish, 184. 
Japanning and house painting, 
wainscot varnish for, 209. 

and varnishing, 178-187. 
Joints, 241-244. 
Journal boxes, metal for, 232. 

Keene's marble cement, 223. 

Lac, 189. 

Lace, gold and silver, to polish, 

257, 258. 
Lacquer, 192, 193. 

best, for brass, 213. 

color for, 213. 

deep gold-colored, 211, 212. 

directions for making, 212. 

for bronzed brass, 212. 

for dipped brass, 212. 

for philosophical instruments, 

213. 
for tin, 211. 
gold, 211. 
gold-colored, for dipped brass, 

212, 213. 
gold-colored, for brass not 

dipped, 212. 
good, 213. 

good, for brass, 213. 
Japanese, imitation of, 214, 

215. 
pale, for brass, 211, 213. 
pale, for tin plate, 213. 
red, for brass, 213. 
red spirit, 211. 
varnish, 211, 
Lacquers, 211-215. 

for pictures, metal, wood oi 

leather, 212. 
soap, 213, 214. 
Lamp top or cover, octagon OG, 

pattern for, 52, .53. 
Lamps, pipes for services for, 172. 
Lap joint, 242, 243. 

weld iron boiler flues, 169. 
Latent heat, 148. 

heat of various substances, 
148. 
Lead pipe, calibre and weight of, 
170. 



290 



INDEX. 



Lead pipes, drawn, strength of, 
276, 277. 
to recognize a content of, in 

tin, 163. 
weight of, 125, 126. 
Leather, cement for, 220. 
japan black for, 184. 
lacquers for, 212. 
varnish, 210. 
Line, direct, to obtain the length 
of any, 102, 103. 
to bisect a, 97. 

to divide a, into equal parts, 
98. 
Lineal measurement, decimal 
equivalents to fractional 
parts of. 108, 109. 
Linseed oil, 190. 

oil or boiled oil varnish, 208. 
Lipowitz's alloy, 231. 
Liquation, 224. 
Liquor dealers' and druggists' 

measures, 136. 
Lithographs and paintings, var- 
nishes for, 204. 
or engravings, varnish to fix, 
on wood, 204. 
Load.average crushing, of different 

materials, 280. 
Locomotive driving boxes, brasses 
for, 233. 
side rods, brasses for, 233. 
Locomotives, bearing metals for, 

232, 233. 
London mastic cement, 222, 223. 
Lowitz's cement, 223. 
Luting, water-titrht, cement var- 
nish for, 200. 

Machines, models proportioned to, 

264, 265. 
Mahogany varnish, 200. 
Manganese bronze, 227, 228. 
Mannheim gold, or similor, 225. 
Manufacture of tin plate, 159-163. 
Maps, engravings, etc., varnishes 

for. 204. 
Marble cement, 220. 

workers and coppersmiths, 

cement for, 220. 
Marine glue, 245. 
Martin's cement, 223. 
Mastic, 189, 190. 

cement, London. 222, 223. 
Varley's, 217. 



Mastic varnishes, 206. 
Materials, diflerent, table showing 
the average crushing load 
of, 280. 

strength of, 262-281. 

tables of strength of, 272-281. 

Measurement, lineal, decimal 

equivalents to fractional 

parts of, 108, 109. 

Measures, druggists' and liquor 

dealers', 136. 

sizes of, 136. 
Mensuration of solids and capaci- 
ties of bodies, 119-122. 

of surfaces, 110-119. 
Metal and wood, cement for join- 
ing, 222. 

cohesive power of bars of, 
269. 

expansive, 234. 

for taking impressions, 233. 

lacquers for, 212. 

lateral strength of a beam or 
bar of, 263, 264. 

plate work, seams or joints 
used in. 241-244. 
Metallic alloys, 223-235. 
Metals and other elements, fusing 
points of, 148. 

bronze for all kinds of, 248. 

cheap and quick method of 
coloring, 254, 255. 

determination of the homo- 
geneity of, 271. 

enamelling of, 256, 257. 

expansion of, by heat, 149. 

list of, according to their 
strength, 265, 266. 

measuring the ductilitv of, 
271. 

measuring the elasticity of, 
270, 271. 

measuring the stiffness of, 
270. 

method of testing, 269-271. 

noble, alloys of the, 232. 

pipes of various, to ascertain 
weights and diameter of, 
170,^171. 

resilience of, 271. 

specific gravity of, 146. 

table of the strength, extensi- 
bility and stiffness of, 278. 

table showing the tensile 
strength of, 280. 281. 



INDEX, 



•2fl 



Metals, ultimate tensile strength 

of, 271. 
varnish for, 197. 
weight of plates of, 173. 
Methylated spirit of wine and 

naphtha, 191. 
Milk of wax, 205. 
Miter and butt joints, 242. 

joint for an OG cornice, pat- 
tern for a, 50-52. 
joint for gutters, patterns for 

a, 47-50. 
Models proportioned to machines, 

264, 265. 
Mosaic gold, 225. 
Mother of pearl, cement for, 218. 
Mouldings, circular, of galvanized 

iron, 166-169. 
Multiplication, sign of, 110, 
Muntz metal, or vellow metal, 

225. 
Muriate of zinc, to make, 239. 
Music metal, 233. 

Naphtha and methylated spirit of 
wine, 191. 

Oak, strength of, 266. 

varnish, cheap, 201. 
Oblique pvramid, to describe a 

frustum of an, 23-26. 
Oblong or oval article, tapering, 
patterns for an, 13-17. 
taper bath, plan of an, 18-20. 
Octagon OG lamp top or cover, 
pattern for an, 52, 53. 
or square top or cover, 90, 91. 
top or cover, pattern for a 
tapering, 46, 47. 
Offset, pattern for an, 50-52. 
OG cornice, pattern for a miter 

joint for an, 50-52. 
Oil paintings, varnish for, 204. 

varnishes, 191, 192. 
Orange-colored grounds, 183. 
Oreide, 225. 

Organ pipes, metal for, 233. 
Ormolu, 234. 

dipping acid for brass, 247. 
dipping, to prepare brass work 

for, 247. 
dips, old nitric acid, to repair, 
247. 
Oval article, tapering, patterns 
for, 4-13. 



Oval boiler cover, 89. 

egg-shaped, to draw an, 93, 
94. 

or ellipse, to describe an, 92. 

or ellipse, to find the area of 
an, 117. 

or ellipse, to find the circum- 
ference of an, 117. 

or oblong article, tapering, 
patterns for, 13-17. 

Pails and dish kettles, sizes of, 

135. 
Paint for coating wire work, 244. 
Paintings and lithographs, var- 
nishes for, 204. 
and pictures, beautiful varnish 
for, 204, 205. 
Pakfong, 230. 
Pans, sizes of, 135. 
Parabola, to describe a, 101, 102. 
Parallelopipedoni, rule for finding 
the lateral strength of, 266, 
267. 
Parian cement, 223. 
Paste, razor, 244. 
Patent strip over lap, 243. 
Pattern, to obtain the weight of 
the casting from that of the, 
174, 175. 
Patterns, rules for describing, 1-96. 
smooth moulding, varnish 
for, 210. 
Perpendicular, to erect a, 97. 

to find the. 111, 112. 
Pewter, 233. 
plate, 233. 

surfaces, electroplating of, 
255, 256. 
Phosphor bronze, 227. 
Pictures and paintings, beautiful 
varnish for, 204, 205. 
lacquers for, 212. 
Pinchbeck, 225. 
Pine wood, strength of, 266. 
Pipe at any angle, the collar to be 
set on side of the main pine, 
63,64. 
at any angle, the collar to be 
smaller than the main pipe, 
61-63. 
at any angle, 57-59, 
at right angles, 56, 57. 
pattern for a flange for a, 89, 
90. 



2% 



INDEX. 



Pipe, pattern for the T formed by 
a funuel-shape piece of a, 
68-73. 
the collar to be smaller than 

the main pipe, 59-61. 
to fit a flat surface at any 

angle, 73, 74. 
to fit two flat surfaces, 74, 75. 
Pipes, drawn lead, strength of, 
276, 277. 
for services for lamps, 172. 
gas, diameter and length of, 

172. 
lengths and diameters of, made 

from tin-sheets, 166. 
of various metals, to ascertain 
weights and diameter of, 
170, 171. 
pattern for a T piece formed 

by two, 64-68. 
patterns for, 56-78. 
Piping, tapering piece of, 75-78. 
Plaster of paris bustsand statuettes, 
to cleanse, 251. 
of paris fixtures, to bronise, 
251. 
Plates, butt joint for, 242, 243. 
Platinum, to solder, 237, 238. 
Plumbers' cement, 218. 
Polish, copal, 196. 
Polishes, furniture, 203. 
Polygon, regular, to find the area 
of a, 112. 
to describe any, 103, 104. 
to inscribe auv, in a circle, 
103. 
Polygons, regular, table of angles 
relative to the construction 
of, 113. 
Practical geometry, 97-109. 

receipts, 178-262. 
Pressure of air, 157. 

of water, rule for finding the, 

156. 
one atmosphere of, 157. 
Priming, pure white, for japan- 
ning, 178, 179. 
Prince metal or Bristol metal, 

225. 
Printers, size or varnish for, 206. 
Pump, common, principle of the, 

158, 159. 
Purple japan grounds, 183, 184. 
Pyramid, oblique, to describe a 
frustum of an, 23-28. 



Pyramid or cone, to find the con. 
vex surface of a frustum 
of a, 118. 

or cone, to find the solidity of 
a, 120. 

or right cone, to find the con- 
vex surface of a, 118. 

solidity of the frustum of a, 
121. 

Queen's metal, 233. 

Radiating or absorbent and reflect- 
ing powers ofsubstances, 150. 
Radius of a circle, 113. 

or'circle, to find the centre of 
a, 100. 
Razor paste, 244. 

Reading Iron Co., American lap 
weld iron boiler flues, manu- 
factured by the, 169. 
Receipts, miscellaneous, 244-262. 

practical, 178-262. 
Rectangle base and circular top, 
pattern for a tapering article 
with, 44. 
base and square top, pattern 
for a tapering article with, 
42-44. 
to find the length for a, equal 

to a square, 106. 
to form a, in a triangle, 107. 
to form a square equal in area 

to a, 106. 
top and base, pattern for a 
tapering article with, 44, 45. 
Reflecting and radiating or absorb- 
ent powers of substances, 
150. 
Reflector metal, 233. 
Resilience of metals, 271. 
Resins employed in the manufac- 
ture of varnishes, 188-190. 
Rivet metal, 233. 
Riveted joint, 242. 
Roof, hipped, covering of a, 33-40. 
pipe to fit the side of a, 74, 75. 
Roofing cement, 219. 
Roofs, circular, etc., covering of, 
30, 31. 
least load on, 262. 
Roll joint, 243. 

Ropes, absolute strength of, 264. 
hempen, strength and weight 
of, 275, 27Q, 



INDEX. 



293 



Ropes, iron wire, strength of, 275. 

Rose's metal, 231. 

Rubber, solvents for, 258, 259, 

stamps, red ink for, 260. 
Rule and compasses, to draw an 

ellipse with the, 92, 93. 
Rules for describing patterns, 1-96. 
Rusting, to prevent, 246. 

Sandarach, 190. 

Saucepans, iron, to tin, 252, 253. 

Saws, small band, to join, 239. 

speed of, 176. 
Scarlet ja])an, 182, 183. 
Sealing wax for fruit cans, 246. 
Sector, definition of a, 114. 

of a circle, to find the area of 
the, 116. 
Seeds, specific gravity of, 147. 
Segment, definition of a, 114. 

or arc of a circle of large radii, 

to describe a, 101. 
to find the area of a, of a cir- 
cle, 116. 
Semicircle, definition of a, 114. 
Semicircles, to inscribe in a circle, 
108. 
to inscribe within an equilat- 
eral triangle, 107, 108. 
Semicircular gutters, 166. 
Sheet-iron, weight of a square foot 
of, 171. 
-lead, lap joint for, 242. 
Shrinkage of castings, 175, 176. 
Side rods, locomotive, brasses for, 

233. 
Silicon bronze, 227. 

telegraph wire, 227. 
telephone wire, 227. 
Silver and gold lace, to polish, 
257, 258. 
German, 230. 
leaf, 233. 
solder, 236. 

to separate, from copper, 249. 
Silvering by heat, 248, 249. 
mixture for, 249. 
, powder for copper, 246. 
Silveroid, 228. 

Similor, or Mannheim gold, 225. 
Siphon, principle of the, 158. 
Sitz-bath or hip-bath, plan of a, 

20-23. 
Size or varnish for printers, 206. 
Soap lacquers, 213, 214. 



Soft brilliant varnish, 197. 
Solder, hard, 240. 
soft brass, 240. 
soft, to color, 238, 239. 
Solders, 235-241. 
hard, 236. 
soft, 235. 
Solids and capacities of bodies, 

mensuration of, 119-122. 
Sorel's cement, 222. 

magnesia cement, 222. 
Specific gravity, 145-147. 
heat, definition, of, 147. 
heat of different substances, 
148. 
Speculum metal, 226. 
Speed of saws, 176. 
Speeds, etc., rules for calculating, 

176, 177. 
Spelter, 236. 

Sphere or globe, to find the convex 
surface of a, 119. 
to find the solidity of a, 122. 
Spirit of wine, methylated, and 
naphtha, 191. 
varnish, white, 196. 
varnishes, 191. 
varnishes, brown, hard, 197. 
varnishes, white, hard, 196. 
Square article, tapering, patterns 
for a, 40, 41. 
base and circular top, pattern 
for a tapering article with, 
41, 42. 
or octagon top or cover, 90, 91. 
root, sign of, 110. 
to construct a, upon a right 

line, 104. 
to find the length for a rect- 
angle equal to a, 106. 
to form a, equal in area to a 

rectangle, 106. 
to form a, equal in area to a 

triangle, 104, 105. 
top and rectangle base, pattern 
for a tapering article with, 
42-44. 
Squared, to be, sign of, 110. 
Stamps, brass, ink for, 261. 
indelible ink for, 261. 
rubber, red ink tor, 260. 
Stand, pattern for a, 53-56. 
Statuary, bronze varnish for, 198. 
Statuettes and busts, plaster of 
paris, to cleanse, 251. 



294 



INDEX. 



Steamer cover, to describe a, 91, 92. 
Steel aud iron, brown tint for, 
256. 
and iron, soldering of, 239- 

241. 
and iron, varnishing articles 

of, 197, 19S. 
-bronze or Uchatius bronze, 

226. 
cast, composidon used in weld- 
ing, 249. 
cohesive power of bars of, 269. 
joints, solder for, 236. 
Stereotype metal, 234. 
Sterling metal, 225. 
Sterro or Aich metal, 225. 
Stone, lateral strength of a beam 
' or bar of, 263, 264. 
structures, cement for, 219. 
Stones and varieties of earths, 

specific gravity of, 146. 
Stoneware, cement for, 216. 
Straight joints, 242. 
Strength of materials, 262-281. 
of materials, tables of, 272- 

281. 
tensile, of metals, 280, 281. 
tensile, of woods, 281. 
Substances, radiating or absorbent 
and reflecting powers of, 
150. 
varioits, weights of, 173. 
Substraction, sign of. 110. 
Surfaces, mensuration of, 110-119. 

Table varnish, 195. 
Tables of strenfith of materials, 
272-281. 
of the circumference aud area 

of circles, 127-134. 
of weights, etc., 123-126. 
Talmi gold, 225. 
Tangent, to draw a, to a circle, 

100. 
Tapering article with rectangle 
base and circular top, 44. 
article with rectangle base and 

square top, 42-44. 
article with rectangle top and 

base, 44, 45. 
article with square base and 

circular top, 41, 42. 
elbow, pattern for a, 87, 88. 
octagon top or cover, pattern 
for, 46, 47. 



Tapering oval article, patterns 
for a, 4-13. 
oval or oblong article, patterns 

for, 13-17. 
piece of piping, 75-78. 
square article, patterns for a, 
40, 41. 
Tea trays, japanning old. 185, 

186. 
Telegraph wire, silicon, 227. 
Telephone wire, silicon, 227. 
Telford and Brown, exjieriments 

by, 269. 
Temperatures and colors in tem- 
pering, 151. ; 
Tempering, 150-153. 

mixtures for, 152. 153. 
Tensile strengtli of metals, 280, 
281. 
strength of woods, 281. 
Testing metals, method of, 269-271. 
Thermometer, to temper bv the, 

151. 
Timber, method of increasing the 
suspensive power of, 268. 
round, power of suspension 

of, 267, 268. 
square, lateral strength of, 
268. 
Timbers, rectangular, strength of, 
268. 
strength of, to resist crushing 
strains, 277, 278. 
Tin and tin allovs, bronze upon, 
249, 2.50. 
cohesive power of bars of, 

269. 
lacquer for, 211. 
plate, crystallized, 163, 164. 
plate, manutacture of, 159- 

163. 
plate, pale lacquer for, 213. 
plate, quality of. 163. 
})lates, lapjoiiit for, 242. 
plates, size, length, breadth 

and weight of, 164. 
roofing and tin work, 165. 
sheets, lengtlis and diameters 

of pipes made from, 166. 
to recognize a content of lead 

in, 163. 
-ware, cleaning of, 258. 
in form of frustum of a cone, 

sizes of, 135, 136. 
inks for marking, 260. 



INDEX. 



295 



Tin work and tin roofing, 165. 
Tinning, cold, 253. 

small articles, 253, 254. 
Tombac, 225. 

Top or cover, octagon or square, 
90, 91. 
or cover, tapering octagon, 
pattern for a, 46, 47. 
Tortoise-shell japan, 184, 185. 
Transparent japan, 184. 
Tredgold's and Duleau's experi- 
ments, 266. 
Triangle, a circle of greatest dia- 
meter in a, 106, 107. 
equilateral, to inscribe semi- 
circles within a, 107, 108. 
to bisect a, 107. 
to describe a, in a circle, 99. 
to find the area of a, HI. 
to form a, equal in area to a 

circle, 105, 106. 
to form a rectangle in a, 107. 
to form a square equal in area 

lo a, 104, 105. 
right-angled, to find the third 
side of a, 111. 
Tube, strength of a, 264. 
Tubes, small, butt joints for, 242, ' 
243. I 

Turpentine, 190. 
Tutenag, 230 
Type metal, 234. 

Uchatius or steel-bronze, 226. 
Unit of heat, 147, 148. 

Varley's mastic, 217. 
Varnfsh, beautiful, for paintings 
and pictures, 204, 205. 

best body copal, for coach- 
makers, etc., 195, 196. 

black, 200. 

black, for harness, 208. 

black, for iron work, 198. 

black ja[)an, 210. 

boiled oil or linseed oil, 208. 

bronze, for statuary, 198. 

cabinet, 195. 

cheap oak, 201. 

coach, 200. 

common, 208. 

common table, 195. 

copal, for inside work, 195. 

dammar, 208. 

dark^ for light woodwork, 201. 



Varnish, fine black, for coaches, 
210. 

flexible, 207. 

for cabinet-makers, 200, 

for certain parts of carriages, 
200. 

for coating metals, 197. 

for instruments, 201. 

for iron work, 198. 

for leather, 210. 

for oil paintings, 204. 

for smooth moulding patterns, 
210. 

for the wood toys of Spa, 201. 

for wateri)roof goods, 208. 

for woodwork, 201. 

gold, 209. 

gold, imitation of, 260. 

gutta-percha, 208. 

mahogany, 200. 

or size for printers, 206. 

soft brilliant, 197. 

table, 195. 

to fix engravings or litho- 
graphs on wood, 204. 

Watin's, for gilded articles, 
200, 201. 

white, 196, 197. 

white spirit, 196. 
Vai-nishes, amber, 198-200. 

copal, 193-195. 

crystal, 205. 

essence, 191. 

etching, 204. 

for balloons, gas bags, etc., 
209. 

for ensrravings, maps, etc., 
204. 

for furniture, 201, 202. 

for oil paintings and litho- 
graphs, 204. 

India-rubber, 206-208. 

Italian, 206. 

mastic, 206. 

miscellaneous, 187-210. 

oil, 191, 192. 

spirit, 191. 

waterproof, 208, 209. . 

white, hard spirit, 196. 
Varnishing and japanning, 178- 
187. 

iron and steel, 197, 198. 
Versed sine, 114. 

Vinegar bronze for brass, 247, 
248. 



296 



INDEX. 



Wainscot varnish, 209. 
Wash bowls, sizes of, 136. 
Watch faces, enamel for, 257. 
Water, 153-156. 

boiling points of, 154. 

composition of, 153, 154. 

expansion and contraction of, 
154, 155. 

in its natural state, effects 
produced by, 156. 

-proof varnishes, 2U8, 209. 

rule for finding the pressure 
of, 156. 

specific gravity of, 155. 

specific heat of, 155. 

weight of, 155. 
Watin's varnish for gilded articles, 

200, 201. 
AV'ax, milk of, 205. 
Weights, etc., tables of, 123-126. 
Welding cast-steel, composition 

used in, 249. 
White, hard spirit, varnishes, 196. 

japan ground, 179, 180. 

metal, "hard, 233. 

metals, 233. 

spirit varnish, 196. 



White varnish, 196, 197. 

Wire work, paint for coating, 

244. 
Wood and metal, cement for join- 
ing, 222. 
cement for cracks in, 221, 222. 
lacquers for, 212. 
lateral strength of a beam or 

bar of, 263, 264. 
tovs of Spa, varnish for, 201. 
Wood's alloy, 231. 
Woods, list of, according to their 
strength, 266. 
specific gravity of, 147. 
table of the strength, extensi- 
bility and stiffness of, 279. 
table "showing the tensile 
strength of, 281. 
Woodwork, light, dark varnish 
for, 201. 
varnish for, 201. 
Wrought iron, expansion of, 174. 

Yellow grounds, 183. 

metal or Muntz metal, 225. 

I Zinc, to make muriate of, 239. 



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By a Barrister (Sir John Barnard Byles, Judge of Common 

Pleas). From the Ninth English Edition, as published by the 

Manchester Reciprocity Association. i2mo, . . . $1.25 

BOWMAN.— The Structure of the Wool Fibre in its Relation 
to the Use of Wool for Technical Purposes : 
Being the substance, with additions, of Five Lectures, delivereo at 
the request of the Council, to the members of the Bradford Technical 
College, and the Society of Dyers and Colorists. By F. PI. Bo\v^ 
MAN, D. Sc, F. R. S. E., F. L. S. Illustrated by 32 engravings. 
8vo ^5.ooj 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book for the Artisan, Mechanic, and En^- 

neer : 

Comprising the Grinding and Sharpening of Cutting Tools, Abva-.ve 

Processes, Lapidary Work, Gem and Glass Engraving, Varnishing 

and Lackering, Apparatus, Materials and Processes for Grinding and 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



Polishing, etc. By Oliver Byrne. Illustrated by 185 wood en- 
gravings. 8vo. ^5.00 

3YRNE.— Pocket-Book for Railroad and Civil Engineers : 

Containing New, Exact and Concise Methods for I^aying out Railroad 
Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings ; the Staking out of 
work ; Levelling ; the Calculation of Cuttings ; Embankments ; Earth- 
work, etc. By Oliver Byrne. i8mo., full bound, pocket-book 
form .......... $1.50 

BYRNE.— The Practical Metal-Worker's Assistant : 
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all Metals 
and Alloys ; Forging of Iron and Steel ; Hardening and Tempering; 
Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding ; Works in Sheet Metal; 
the Processes Dependent on the Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; 
and the most Improved Processes and Tools employed by Metal- 
workers. With the Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to 
Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from 
the works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Piumier, Napier, 
Scoffern, Clay, Fairbairn and others. By Oliver Byrne. A new, 
revised and improved edition, to which is adtled an Appendix, con- 
taining The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. By John Percy, 
M. D., F. R. S. The Manufacture of Malleable Iron Castings, and 
Improvements in Bessemer Steel. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and 
Engineer. With over Six Hundred Engravings, Illustrating every 
Branch of the Subject. 8vo $S-O0 

BYRNE.— The Practical Model Calculator: 

For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work, Naval 
Architect, Miner and Millwright. By Oliver Byrne. 8vo., nearly 
600 pages ^300 

CABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE i 
Comprising a Collection of Designs for various Styles of Furniture. 
Illustrated by Forty-eight Large and Beautifully EngraA'^d Plates. 
Oblong, 8vo ^1.50 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign Writing and Glass Embossing: 

A Complete Practical Illustrated Mnnual of the Art. By JAMES 

CALLINGHAM. To which are added Numerous Alphabets and the 

Art of Letter Painting Made Easy. By James C. Badenoch. 258 

pages. i2mo. $i-50 

CAMPIN. — A Practical Treatise on Mechanical Engineering: 
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Work, 
shop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of Steam- 
Engines, etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron 
Ores, By Francis Campin, C. E. To which are added, Observations 
on the Construction of Steam Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces 
used for Smoke Prevention ; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. 
Armstrong, C. E., and John Bourne. (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CAREY.— A Memoir of Henry C. Carey. 

By Dr. Wm. Elder. With a portrait. 8vo., cloth . . 75 

CAREY.— The Works of Henry C. Carey : 

Harmony of Interests : Agricultural, Manufacturing and Commer' 

cial. Svo. . . $1.25 

Manual of Social Science. Condensed from Carey's " Principles 
of Social Science." By Kate McKean. i vol. i2mo. . $2.00 
Miscellaneous Works. With a Portrait. 2 vols. 8vo. ^10.00 
Past, Present and Future. Svo. ..... $2.50 

Principles of Social Science. 3 volumes, Svo. . . $7-50 
The Slave-Trade, Domestic and Foreign; Why it Exists, and 
How it may be Extinguished (1853). Svo. . . . $2.00 

The Unity of Law : As Exhibited in the Relations of Physical, 
Social, Mental and Moral Science (1S72). Svo. . . $2.50 

CLARK. — Tramways, their Construction and Working : 

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System. With an ex- 
haustive analysis of the various modes of traction, including horse- 
power, steam, heated water a.id compressed air; a description of the 
varieties of Rolling stock, and ample details of cost and working ex- 
penses. By D. KiNXEAR Clark. Illustrated by over 200 wood 
engravings, and thirteen folding plates. I vol. Svo. . $7.50 

COLBURN.— The Locomotive Engine: 

Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its 
Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Man- 
agement. By Zerah Colburn. Illustrated. i2mo. . $1.00 

COLLENS.— The Eden of Labor; or, the Christian Utopia. 
By T. Wharton Collens, author of " Humanics," " The Historj 
of Charity," etc. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00 ; Cloth . $1.25 

COOLEY. — A Complete Practical Treatise on Perfumery: 
Being a Hand-book of Perfumes, Cosmetics and other Toilet Article! 
With a Comprehensive Collection of Formulas. By ARNOLD J 
CooLEY. i2mo $1.50 

COOPER.— A Treatise on the use of Belting for the Tracts 
mission of Power. 
With numerou-s illustrations of approved and actual methods of ar- 
ranging Main Driving and Quarter Twist Belts, and of Belt Fasten 
ings. Examples and Rules in great number for exhibiting and cal- 
culating the size and driving power of Belts. Plain, Particular and 
Practical Directions for the Treatment, Care and Management o^ 
Belts. Descriptions of many varieties of Beltings, together witn 
chapters on the Transmission of Power by Ropes ; by Iron and 
Wood Frictional Gearing; on the Strength of Belting Leather; and 
on the Experimental Investigations of Morin, Briggs, and others. By 
John H. Cooper, M. E. Svo $3.50 

CRAIK. — The Practical American Millwright and MUler. 
By David Craik, Millwright, Illustrated by numeroits wood en- 
gravings and two folding plates, Svo. . . . • (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



CROSS.— The Cotton Yarn Spinner : 

Showing how the Preparation should be arranged for Differeni 
Counts of Yarns by a System more uniform than has hitherto been 
practiced; by having a Standard Schedule from which we make all 
our Ciianges. By Richard Cross. 122 pp. i2mo. . 75 

CRISTIANI.— A Technical Treatise on Soap and Candles: 

With a Glance at the Industry of Fats and Oils. By R. S. Cris- 
TIANI, Chemist. Author of " Perfumery and Kindred Arts." Illus- 
trated by 176 engravings. 581 pages, 8vo. $15,00 

COURTNEY.— The Boiler Maker's Assistant in Drawing, 
Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work and Tank 
Work, etc. 
Revised by D. K. Clark. 102 ills. Fifth edition. . . 80 • 
COURTNEY.— The Boiler Maker's Ready Reckoner: 

With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating. Revised by 
D. K. Clark, C. E. 37 illustrations. Fifth edition. • $1.60 

DAVIDSON. — A Practical Manual of House Painting, Grain- 
ing, Marbling, and Sign-W^riting: 

Containing full information on the processes of House Painting ir 
Oil and Distemper, the Formation of Fetters and Practice of Sign- 
Writing, the Principles of Decorative Art, a Course of Elementary 
Drawing for House Painters, Writers, etc., and a Collection of Usefu] 
Receipts. W^ith nine colored illustrations of Woods and Marbles, 
and numerous wood engravings. By Ellis A, Davidson. i2mo, 

^2.00 

DAVIES.— A Treatise on Earthy and Other Minerals and 
Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., Mining Engineer, etc. Illustrated by 
76 Engravings. i2mo. ...... . ^5.00 

DAVIES. — A Treatise on Metalliferous Minerals and Mining: 
By D. C. Davies, F. G. S , Mining Engineer, Examiner of Mines, 
Quarries and Collieries. Illustrated by 148 engravings of Geological 
Formations, Mining Operations and Machinery, drawn from the 
practice of all parts of the world. Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised 
and much Enlarged by his son, E. Flenry Davies. i2mo., 524 
pages ....... . . ^5.00 

DAVIES.— A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying: 

Scientific, Practical and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F. G. S., 
Mining Engineer, etc. With numerous illustrations and folding 
plates, ;2mo. ^1.20 

DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Brick, 

Tiles and Terra-Cotta : 

Including Stiff Clay, Dry Clay, Hand Made, Pressed or Front, and 

Roadway Paving Brick, Enamelled Brick, with Glazes and Colors, 

Fire Brick and Blocks, Silica Brick, Carbon Brick, Glass Pots, Re- 



lo HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGlJte. 

torts, Architectural Terra-Cotta, Sewer Pipe, Drain Tile, Glazed and 
Unglazed Roofing Tile, Art Tile, Mosaics, and Imitation of Intarsia 
or Inlaid Surfaces. Comprising every product of Clay employed in 
Architecture, Engineering, and the Blast Furnace. With a Detailed 
Description of the Different Clays employed, the Most Modern 
Machinery, Tools, and Kilns used, and the Processes for Handling, 
Disintegrating, Tempering, and Moulding the Clay into Shape, Dry- 
ing, Setting, and Burning. By Charles Thomas Davis. Third Edi- 
tion. Revised and in great part rewritten. Illustrated by 261 
engravings. 662 pages ....... $5.00 

DAVIS. — A Treatise on Steam-Boiler Incrustation and Meth- 
ods for Preventing Corrosion and the Formation of Scale: 
By Charles T. Davis. Illustrated by 65 engravings. 8vo. 

DAVIS.— The Manufacture of Paper: 

Being a Description of the various Processes for the Fabrication, 
Coloring and Finishing of every kind of Paper, Including the Dif- 
ferent Raw Materials and the Methods for Determining their Values, 
the Tools, Machines and Practical Details connected with an intelli- 
gent and a profitable prosecution of the art, with special reference to 
the best American Practice. To which are added a History of Pa- 
per, complete Lists of Paper-Making Materials, List of American 
Machines, Tools and Processes used in treating the Raw Materials, 
and in Making, Coloring and Finishing Paper. By Charles T. 
Davis. Illustrated by 156 engravings. 608 pages, Bvo. $6.00 

DAVIS. — The Manufacture of Leather: 

Being a Description of all the Processes for the Tanning and Tawing 
with Bark, Extracts, Chrome and all Modern Tannages in General 
Use,and the Currying, Finishing and Dyeing of Every Kind of Leather; 
Including the Various Raw Materials, the Tools, Machines, and all 
Details of Importance Connected with an Intelligent and Profitable 
Prosecution of the Art, with Special Reference to the Best American 
Practice. To which are added Lists of American Patents (1884-1897) 
for Materials, Processes, Tools and Machines for Tanning, Currying, 
etc. By Charles Thomas Davis, Second Edition, Revised, and 
in great part Rewritten. Illustrated by 147 engravings and 14 Sam- 
ples of Quebracho Tanned and Aniline Dyed Leathers. 8vo, cloth, 
712 pages. Price $7- 50 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A Practical Treatise on the 

Raw Materials and Fabrication of Glue, Gelatine, Gelatine 

Veneers and Foils, Isinglass, Cements, Pastes, Mucilages, 

etc. : 

Eased upon Actual Experience. By F. Dawidowsky, Technical 

Chemist. Translated from the German, with extensive additions, 

including a description of the most Recent American Processes, by 

William T. Brannt, Graduate of the Royal Agricultural College 

of Eldena, Prussia. 35 Engravings. i2mo. . . . ^2.50 

DE GRAFF.— The Geometrical Stair-Builders* Guide : 
being a Plain Practical System of Hand-Railing, embracing all its 
necessary Details, and Geometrically Illustrated by twenty-two Steel 
Engravings ; together with the use of the most approved pnnciplef 
of Practical Geometry. By Simon De Graff, Architect (Scarce.) 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. n 

DE KONINCK— DIETZ.— A Practical Manual of Chemica' 
Analysis and Assaying : 

As applied to the Manufacture of Iron from its Ores, and to Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel, as found in Commerce. By L. L. Db 
KoNiNCK, Dr. Sc, and E. Dietz, Engineer. Edited with Notes, by 
Robert Mallet, F. R. S., F. S. G., M. I. C. E., etc. American 
Edition, Edited with Notes and an Appendix on Iron Ores, by A. A, 
Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . . j^i.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical Surveyor's Guide: 
Containing the necessary information to make any person of com^ 
mon capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of a teacher 
By Andrew Duncan. Revised. 72 engravings, 214 pp. i2mo. ^1.50 

DUPLAIS. — A Treatise on the Manufacture and Distillation 
of Alcoholic Liquors : 
Comprising Accurate and Complete Details in Regard to Alcohol 
from Wine, Molasses, Beets, Grain, Rice, Potatoes, Sorghum, Aspho 
del. Fruits, etc.; with the Distillation and Rectification of Brandy 
Whiskey, Rum, Gin, Swiss Absinthe, etc., the Preparation of ArO' 
matic Waters, Volatile Oils or Essences, Sugars, Syrups, Aromatic 
Tinctures, Liqueurs, Cordial Wines, Effervescing Wines, etc., the 
Ageing of Brandy and the improvement of Spirits, with Copious 
Directions and Tables for Testing and Reducing Spirituous Liquors, 
etCo etc. Translated and Edited from the French of MM. DuPLAlS, 
By M. McKennie, M. D. Illustrated. 743 pp. 8vo. $15.00 

DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION: 

Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on 
the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now 
in evi.stence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for 
Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. l2mo. |r 00 

EIDHERR.— The Techno-Chemical Guide to Distillation: 
A Hand-Book for the Manufacture of Alcohol and Alcoholic Liquors, 
including the Preparation of Malt and Compressed Yeast. Edited 
from the German of Ed. Eidherr. Fully illustrated. (In preparation.) 

EDWARDS.— A Catechism of the Marine Steam-Engine, 
For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Mechanics. A Practical 
Work for Practical Men. By Emory Edwards, Mechanical Engi- 
neer. Illustrated by sixty-three Engravings, including examples of 
the most modern Engines. Third edition, thoroughly revised, with 
much additional matter. i2mo. 414 pages ... ^2 00 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Locomotive Engines, 
Their Design, Construction and Management. By Emory EdwardS. 
Illustrated i2mo ^2.00 

EDWARDS. — The American Steam Engineer: 

Theoretical and Practical, with examples of the latest and most ap- 
proved American practice in the design and construction of Steam 
Engines and Boilers. For the use of engineers, machinists, boiler- 
tn-^kers, and engineering students. By Emory Edwards. Fully 
iilustrated, 419 pages. i2mo. - . . . $2.50 



12 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

EDWARDS. — Modern American Marine Engines, Boilers, and 
Screw Propellers, 

Their Design and Construction. Showing the Present Practice ot 
the most Eminent Engineers and Marine Engine Builders in the 
United States. Illustrated by 30 large and elaborate plates. 4tG. ^5.00 
EDWARDS.— The Practical Steam Engineer's Guide 

In the Design, Construction, and Management of American Stationary, 
Portable, and Steam Fire- Engines, Steam Pumps, Boilers, Injector;^ 
Governors, Indicators, Pistons and Rings, Safety Valves and Steam 
Gauges. For the use of Engineers, Firemen, and Steam Users. By 
Emory Edwards. Illustrated by 119 engravings. J.20 pages. 
i2mo ^2 50 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Gold : 
A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-Bear- 
ing Ores, including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, 
and the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. EissLER. 

With 132 Illustrations. l2mo $7.50 

EISSLER.— The Metallurgy of Silver : 

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviati-in 
of Silver Ores, including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining o( 
Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler. 124 Illustrations. 336 p]-». 

i2mo ^425 

ELDER. — Conversations on the Principal Subjects of Political 
Economy. 
By Dr. William Elder, 8vo $250 

ELDER.— Questions of the Day, 

Economic and Social. By Dr. William Elder. 8vo. . ^3.00 
ERNI AND BROWN.— Mineralogy Simplified. 

Easy Methods of Identifying Minerals, including Ores, by Means of 
the Blow-pipe, by Flame Reactions, by Humid Chemical Analysis, 
and by Physical Tests. By Henri Erni, A. M., M. D. Third Edi- 
tion, revised, rearranged and with the addition of entirely new matter, 
including Tables for the Determination of Minerals by Chemical and 
Pyrognostic Characters, and by Physical Characters. By Amos P. 
Brown, E. M., Ph. D. 350 pp., illustrated by 96 engravings, pocket- 
book form, full flexible morocco, gilt edges . . . ^2.50 
FAIRBAIRN.— The Prmciples of Mechanism and Machiner> 
of Transmission • 
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys, 
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Coupling of Shafts, and Engag- 
ing and Disengaging Gear. By SiR William Fairbairn, Bart, 
C. E. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one 

volume, i2mo ^2.00 

FLEMING. — Narrow Gauge Railways in America. ^ 

A Sketch of their Rise, Progress, and Success. Valuable Statistics 
as to Grades, Curves, Weight of Rail, Locomotives, Cars, etc. By 
Howard Flemi?jg. Illustrated, 8vo. . . . . $1 oo 
FORSYTH.— Book of Designs for Headstones. Mural, and 
other Monuments : 
Containing 78 Designs. By James Forsyth. With an Introduction 
Ijy Charles Boutell, M,. A* ,. 4 to., cloth -•-. • - $3-50 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 13 



FRANKEL— HUTTER.— A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of Starch, Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine: 

Based on the German of Ladislaus Von Wagner, Professor in the 
Royal Technical High School, Buda-Pest, Hungary, and other 
authorities. By Julius Frankel, Graduate of the Polytechnic 
School of Hanover. Edited by Robert Hutter, Chemist, Practical 
Manufacturer of Starch-Sugar. Illustrated by 58 engravings, cover- 
ing every branch of the subject, including examples of the most 
Recent and Best American Machinery. 8vo., 344 pp. . ^3.50 

(GARDNER. — The Painter's Encyclopaedia: 
Containing Definitions of all Important Words in the Art of Plain 
and Artistic Painting, with Details of Practice in Coach, Carriage, 
Railway Car, House, Sign, and Ornamental Painting, including 
Graining, Marbling, Staining, Varnishing, Polishing, Lettering, 
Stenciling, Gilding, Bronzing, etc. By Franklin B. Gardner. 
158 Illustrations. i2mo. 427 pp. ..... ^2.00 

GARDNER.— Everybody's Paint Book: 

A Complete Guide to the Art of Outdoor and Indoor Painting. 38 
illustrations. l2mo, 183 pp. ...... ^I.OO 

GEE. — The Jeweller's Assistant in the Art of Working in 
Gold: 
A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen. i2mo. . ^3.00 

GEE.— The Goldsmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Gold, 
including the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, Coloring, Col- 
lecting, and Refining; the Processes of Manipulation, Recovery of 
Waste; Chemical and PhysicaF Properties of Gold; with a New 
System of Mixing its Alloys ; Solders, Enamels, and other Useful 
Rules and Recipes. By George E. Gee. i2mo. „ . ^1.25 

GEE.— The Silversmith's Handbook : 

Containing full instructions for the Alloying and Working of Silver, 
including the different modes of Refinin-^ and Melting the Metal; its 
Solders ; the Preparation of Imitation Alloys ; Methods of Manipula- 
tion ; Prevention of Waste ; Instructions for Improving and Finishing 
the Surface of the Work ; together with other Useful Information and 
Memoranda. By George E. Gee. Illustrated. i2mo. Si. 25 

GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET-MAKERS : 

Designs for Gothic Furniture. Twenty-three plates. Oblong ^1.50 

GrRANT.— A Handbook on the Teeth of Gears : 

Their Curves, Properties, and Practical Construction. By George 
B. Grant. Illustrated. Third Edition, enlarged. 8vo. ^1.00 

GREENWOOD.— Steel and Iron: 

Comprising the Practice and Theory of the Several Methods Pur- 
sued in their Manufacture, and of their Treatment in the Rolling- 
Mills, the Forge, and the Foundry. By William Henry Green* 
WQOp, F, C. 3. With 97 Diagrams, 536 pages. larjio.. ^1.75 



14 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE 



GREGORY.— Mathematics for Practical Men : 

Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and 
Civil Engineers, By Olinthus Gregory. 8vo., plates $3.00 
GRIS WOLD,— Railroad Engineer's Pocket Companion for thi 
Field : 
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and Angles, 
Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary Tables for En 
gineers; also the Art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the 
Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young En- 
gineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By 

\V. Griswold. i2mo., tucks J^I-So 

GRUNER.— Studies of Blast Furnace Phenomena : 

By M. L. Gruner, President of the General Council of Mines o5 
France, and lately Professor of Metallurgy at the Ecole des Mines. 
Translated, with the author's sanction, with an appendix, by L. D 
B. Gordon, F. R. S. E.. F. G. S. 8vo. . . . ^2.50 

Hand-Book of Useful Tables for the Lumberman, Farmer and 
Mechanic : 
Containing Accurate Tables of Logs Reduced to Inch Board Meas. 
ure, Plank, Scantling and Timber Measure; Wages and Rent, by 
Week or Month; Capacity of Granaries, Bins and Cisterns; Land 
Measure, Interest Tables, with Directions for Finding the Interest on 
any sum at 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent., and many other Usefu) Tables. 
32 mo., boards. 186 pages ...... .25 

HASERICK.— The Secrets of the Art of Dyeing Wool, Cotton, 
and Linen, 
Including Bleachirig an'i Coloring Wool and Cotton Hosiery and 
Random Yarns. A Treatise based on Economy and Practice, By 
E. C. Haserick. Illustrated by 323 Dyed Patterns of the Yarni 
or Fabrics. 8vo. ........ ^S-Oii 

HATS AND FELTING: 

A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical Platte/, 
Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, etc. 8vo. . . ^1.25 
HERMANN. — Painting on Glass and Porcelain, and Enamel 
Painting: 
A Complete Introduction to the Preparation of all the Colors and 
Fluxes Used for Painting on Glass, Porcelain, Enamel, Faience and 
Stoneware, the Color Pastes and Colored Glasses, together with a 
Minute Description ot the Firing ot Colors and Enamels, on the 
Basis of Personal Practical Experience of the Art up to Date. 18 
illustrations. Second edition. ..... 

HAUPT.— Street Railway Motors: 

With Descriptions and Cost of Plants and Operation of the Various 
Systems now in Use. I5r"»'>, < . • • ^i-75 



HET^RY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 15 

HAUPT. — A Manual of Engineering Specifications and Con- 
tracts. 

By Lewis M. Haupt, C. E. Illustrated with numerous maps. 
328pp. 8vo. ......... ^3 GO 

HAUPT. — The Topographer, His Instruments and Methods. 
By Lewis M. Haupt, A. M., C. E. Illustrated with numerous 
plates, maps and engravings. 247 pp. 8vo. . . . ^3.00 

HUGHES. — American Miller and Millwright's Assistant: 
By William Carter Hughes. i2mo ^1.50 

HULME. — "Worked Examination Questions in Plane Geomet- 
rical Drawing : 
For the Use of Candidates for the Royal Military Academy, Wool- 
wich; the Royal Military College, Sandhurst; the Indian Civil En, 
gineering College, Cooper's Hill ; Indian Public Works and Tele- 
graph Departments ; Royal Marine Light Infantry; the Oxford and 
Cambridge Local Examinations, etc. By F. Edward Hulme, F. L. 
S., F. S. A., Art-Master Marlborough College. Illustrated by 300 
examples. Small quarto $1*50 

JERVIS.— Railroad Property: 

A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways; 
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the 
holders of this class of property ; as well as Railway Managers, Offi- 
cers, and Agents. By John B. Jervis, late Civil Engineer of the 
Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, etc. i2mo., cloth ^2.C)C 

KEENE.— A Hand-Book of Practical Gauging: 

For the Use of Beginners, to which is added a Chapter on Distilla- 
tion, describing the process in operation at the Custom-House for 
ascertaining the Strength of Wines, By James B. Keene, of H. M, 
Customs. 8vo. $I.O0 

KELLEY, — Speeches, Addresses, and Letters on Industrial and 
Financial Questions : 
By Hon. William D. Kelley, M. C. 544 pages, 8vo. . ^82.50 

KELLOGG.— A New Monetary System : 
The only means of Securing the respective Rights of Labor and 
Property, and of Protecting the Public from Financial Revulsions. 
By Edward Kellogg. i2mo. Paper cover, $1.00. Bound in 
cloth I1.25 

KEMLO.— Watch- Repairer's Hand-Book: 
Being a Complete Guide to the Young Beginner, in Taking Apart, 
Putting Together, and Thoroughly Cleaning the English Lever and 
other Foreign Watches, and all American Watches. By F. KfiMLO, 
'*Sfactical Watchmaker. With Illustrations. i2mQ. . j^i.25 



r6 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



KENTISH. — A Treatise on a Box of Instruments, 

And the Slide Rule ; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Log* 
rithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Tim- 
bar, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances. By Thoma* 
Kentish. In one volume. i2mo. .... $i.oo 

KERL. — The Assayer's Manual: 

An Abridged Treatise on the Docimastic Examination of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By Bruno Kerl, Professor 
in the Royal School of Mines. Translated from the German l^y 
William T. Brannt. Second American edition, edited with Ex- 
tensive Additions by F. Lynwood Garrison, Mem-ber of the 
American Institute of Mining Engineers, etc. Illustrated by 87 en- 
gravings. 8vo. (Scarce.^ 

KICK.— Flour Manufacture . 
A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frederick Kick 
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in tht 
imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from 
the second enlarged and revised edition with supplement by H. H. 
P. POWLES, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil Engineers. Illustrated 
with 28 Plates, and 167 Wood-cuts. 367 pages. 8vo. . ^10.00 

KINGZETT.— The History, Products, and Processes of the 
Alkali Trade : 
Including the most Recent Improvements. By Charles Thomasj 
K" I vr.7ETT. Consulting Chemist. With 23 illustrations. 8vo. $2.^0 

KIRK.— The Cupola Furnace: 

A Practical Treatise on the Construction and Management of Foundry 
Cupolas. By Edward Kirk, Practical Moulder and Melter, Con- 
sulting Expert in Melting. Illustrated by 78 engravings. Second 
Edition, revised and enlarged. 450 pages. 8vo. 1903. $3S^ 

LANDRIN.— A Treatise on Steel : 

Comprising its Theory, Metallurgy, Properties, Practical Working, 
and Use. By M. H. C. Landrin, Jr. From the French, by A. A. 
Fesquet. i2mo $2.50 

LANGBEIN.— A Complete Treatise on the Electro-Deposi. 
tion of Metals : 
Comprising Electro-Plating and Galvanoplastic Operations, the De- 
position of Metals by the Contact and Immersion Processes, the Color- 
ing of Metals, the Methods of Grindmg and Polishing, as well as 
Descriptions of the Electric Elements. Dynamo-Electric Machines, 
Thermo-Piles and of the Materials and Processes used in Every De- 
partment of the Art. From the German of Dr. George Langbein, 
with additions by Wm. T. Brannt. Fourth Edition, thoroughly revised 
and much enlarged. 150 Engravings. 590pages. 8vo. 1902. J54-00 

LARDNER.— The Steam-Engine : 

For the Use of Beginners. Illustrated. l2mo. . • , .60 
LEHNER.— The Manufacture of Ink: 

Comprising the Raw Materials, and the Preparation df Waiting, 
Copying and Hektograph Inks, Safety Inks, Ink Extracts and Pow- 
ders, etc. Translated from the German of SiGMUND Lehner, with 
m^iditions by William T. Brannt, Illustrated, i2mo. ^2VQ(> 



•HENRY CAREY BAIRD & GO.'S CATALOGUE. 17 

LARKIN. — The Praciicai Brass and Iron Founder's Guide ; 
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals and 
their Alloys, etc. ; to which are added Recent Improvements in the 
Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc., etc. Bj 
Tames Larkin, late Conductor of the Brass Foundry Department ia 
Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works, Philadelphia. New edition, 
revised, with extensive additions. 414 pages. i2mo. . ^2.50 

LEROUX.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture 0$ 
Worsteds and Carded Yarns : 
Comprising Practical Mechanics, with Rules and Calculations applied 
to Spinning; Sorting, Cleaning, and Scouring Wools; the English 
and French Methods of Combing, Drawing, and Spinning Worsteds, 
and Manufacturing Carded Yarns. Translated from the French of 
Charles Leroux, Mechanical Engineer and Superintendent of a 
Spinning-Mill, by Horatio Paine, M. D., and A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by twelve large Plates. To which 
is added an Appendix, containing Extracts from the Reports of the 
International Jury, and of the Artisans selected by the Committe* 
appointed by the Council of the Society of Arts, London, on Woolen 
and Worsted Machinery and Fabrics, as exhibited in the Paris Uni. 
versal Exposition, 1867. 8vo. . . . . , ^5.00 

LEFFEL.— The Construction of Mill-Dams : 
Comprising also the Building of Race and Reservoir Embankments 
and Head-Gates, the Measurement of Streams, Gauging of Water 
Supply, etc. By James Leffel & Co. Illustrated by 58 engravings, 
8vo. ^2.50 

LESLIE.— Complete Cookery: 
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches. By Miss Leslie. 
Sixtieth thoHsand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New 
Receipts. i2mo. . . . _ . j^i.50 

LE VAN. — The Steam Engine and the Indicator : 

Their Origin and Progressive Development ; including the Most 
Recent Examples of Steam and Gas Motors, together with the Indi- 
cator, its Principles, its Utility, and its Application. By William 
Barnet Le Van. Illustrated by 205 Engravings, chiefly of Indi- 
cator-Cards. 469 pp. 8vo. ...... ^4.00 

LIEBER.— Assayer's Guide ; 
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for the 
Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the Ores of all 
t]r principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins arad Alloys, and of 
Coal, etc. By Oscar M. Lieber. Revised. 283 pp. l2mo, $1.50 

Lockwood's Dictionary of Terms : 

Used in the Practice of Mechanical Engineering, embracing those 
Current in the Drawing Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turn- 
ing, Smith's and Boiler Shops, etc., etc., comprising upwards of Six 
Thousand Definitions. Edited by a Foreman Pattern Maker, author 
of " Pattern Making." 4^7 PP* i2mQ. , . . ^3.75 



l8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

LUKIN.— The Lathe and Its Uses : 

Or Instruction in tlie Art of Turning Wood and Metal, Including 
a Description of the Most Modern Appliances for the Ornamentation 
of Plane and Curved Surfaces, an Entirely Novel Form of Lathe 
for Eccentric and Rose-Engine Turning; A Lathe and Planing 
Machine Combined; and Other Valuable Matter Relating to the 
Art. Illustrated by 462 engravings. Seventh edition. 315 pages. 
8vo 1^4.25 

MAIN and BROWN.— Questions on Subjects Connected with 

the Marine Steam-Engine ; 
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By 
Thomas J. Main, Professor of Mathematics, Royal "s^aval College, 
and Thomas Brown, Chief Engineer, R, N. i2mo., cloth . ^i.oo 

MAIN and BROWN. — The Indicator and Dynamometer: 
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By THOMAS 
J. Main, M. A. F. R., Ass't S. Professor Royal Naval College, 
Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineei 
R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated. 8vo. . 

MAIN and BROWN.— The Marine Steam-Engine. 
By Thomas J. Main, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at the 
Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, and Thomas Brown, Assoc. 
Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer R. N. Attached to the Royal Nava? 
College. With numerous illustrations. 8vo. 

MAKINS.— A Manual of Metallurgy: 

By George Hogarth Makins. 100 engravings. Second edition 
rew^ritten and much enlarged. i2mo.. 592 pages 

MARTIN.— Screw-Cutting Tables, for the Use of Mechanical 

Engineers : 
Showing the Proper Arrangement of iVheels for Cutting the Threads 
of Screws of any Required Pitch ; with a Table for Making the Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A. Martin, Engineer. 
8vo .50 

MICHELL.^Mine Drainage: 
Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Under- 
ground Steam Pumping Machinery. With a Description of a large 
number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the 
Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
their Merits compared with other Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN 
MiCHELL. Illustrated by 247 engravings. 8vo., 369 pages. |5i2 50 

MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book of Useful Formulae and 
Memoranda for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. 
By Guilford L. Molesworth, Member of the Institution of Civil 
Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Full- 
bound in Pocket-book form i^l.oo 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUK u 

WOORE.^The Universal Assistant and the Complete filil 

chanit : 

Containing over one million Industrial Facts, Calculations, ReceiptV 
Processes, Trades Secrets, Rules, Business Forms, Legal Items, F.tc, 
in every occupation, from the Household to the Manufactory. B* 
R. Moore. Illustrated by 500 Engravings. i2mo. . ^2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy Rules for the Measurement of Earthworks : 
By means of the Prismoidal Formula. Illustrated with Nuroerou? 
VVood-Cuts, Problems, and Examples, and concluded by an Exten 
sive Table for finding the Solidity in cubic yards from Mean Areas, 
The whole being adapted for convenient use by Engineers, Surveyors 
Contractors, and others needing Correct Measurements of Earthwork 
By Elwood Morris, C. E. 8vo ^1.50 

MAUCHLINE.— The Mine Foreman's Hand-Book 

Of Practical and Theoretical I-iformation on the Opening, Venti- 
lating, and Working of Collieries. Questions and Answers on Prac- 
tical and Theoretical Coal Mining. Designed. to Assist Students and 
Others in Passing Examinations for Mine Foremanships. By 
Robert Mauchline, Ex-Inspector of Mines. A New, Revised and 
Enlarged Edition. Illustrated by 114 engravings. 8vo. 337 
pages .......... 1^3-75 

fJAPIER.— A System of Chemistry Applied to Dyeing. 
By James Napier, F, C. S. A New and Thoroughly Revised Edi- 
tion. Completely brought up to the present state of the Science, 
including the Chemistry of Coal Tar Colors, by A, A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an Appendix on Dyeing and CalicG 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867. Illus 
trated. 8vo. 422 pages ....... $3.00 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulae, fot 
finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches^ 
Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers : 
Third Edition, with Additions, consisting of New Formulae for the 
Discharge from Tidal and Flood Sluices and Siphons; general infor 
nation on Rainfall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Wa;e/ 
Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By Tohn Neville. C. E. M F 
1. A. ; Fellow of the Royal Geological Society of Ireland. Thicli 
l2mo. . . ^5.5{ 

ME>A^BERY.— Gleanings from Ornamental Art of every 
style : 
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, 
Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of 1851 and 
1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In a series of 100 
exquisitely drawn Plates, containing many hundred examples. Bv 
Robert Newbery. 4to. ...... (Scarce.^ 

NICHOLLS.— The Theoretical and Practical Boiler- Makeran<if 
Engineer's Reference Book: 
Containing a variety of Useful Information for Employers of Laboi; 
F^wemen a-^d Workins Boiler-Makers. Iroxi, Copper, and Tihsaiithf 



20 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen, Engineers, the General Steam-using Public, and for the 
Use of Science Schools and Classes. By Samuel Nicholls. inns' 
trated by sixteen plaies, i2mo. ..... ^^2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding : 

Containing full insiruciions in the different Branches of Forwarding, 
Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling Book-edges and 
Paper. By James B. Nicholson. Illustrated. i2mo., cloth ^2.25 

NICOLLS.— The Railway Builder: 
A Hand-Book for Estimating the Probable Cost of American Rail- 
way Construction and Equipment. By WiLLlAM J. NiCOLLS, Civil 
Engineer. Illustrated, full bound, pocket-book form . ^2.00 

NORMANDY.— The Commercial Handbook of Chemical An- 
alysis : 
Or Practical Instructions for the Determination of the Intrinsic ot 
Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, 
and in the Arts, By A. Normandy. New Edition, Enlarged, and 
Co a great extent rewritten. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., 
thick i2mo Scarce 

NORRIS. — A Handbook for Locomotive Engineers and Ma- 
chinists : 
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing Loco- 
motives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares, Cubes, Areas, 
etc., etc. By Septimus Norris, M. E. New edition. Illustrated, 
I2mo $l.SQ 

NYSTROM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : 
Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms j 
accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- 
trology. By John W. Nystrom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. ^3.0* 

NYSTROM. — On Technological Education and the Construc- 
tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : 
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. Nystrom, latv 
,£lcting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi 
tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. i2mo. . ^1.2^ 

O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: 
Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes ii> 
use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical 
Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charleg O'Neill, Analy- 
tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and 
their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, 
Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico 
Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867- 8vo., 

491 pages $3.00 

•RTON. — Underground Treasures-. 

How and Where to Find Them. A Key for the Ready Determination 
oS all the Useful Minerals within the United States. By JameS 
OrTON, A.m., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, 
N. Y.; author of the "Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edi- 
tion, with An Appendix on Ore Deposits and Testing Minerals (1901). 
Illustrated .,.,,..., j^l.50 



HENRY CAREV BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 2i 



OSBORN.— The Prospector's Field Book and Guide. 

In the Search For and the Easy Determination of Ores and Other 
Useful Minerals. By Prol. H. S. OsBORN, LL. D. Illustrated by 58 
Engravings. i2rao. Fifth Edition. Revised and Enlarged 

(1901) I1.50 

OSBORN — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Mm 
ing: 
Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- 
rence and Associaiions of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of 
Chemical Analysis and Assay ; together witli Various Systems of Ex- 
cavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driving, 
Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. OsBORN, 
LL. D., Author of " Tlie Prospector's Field-Book and Guide." 171 
engravings. Second Edition, revised. 8vo. . , , i^4*50 
OVERMAN.-^ThK Manufacture of Steel : 
Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. 
A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers^in Steel and Iron, Wagon 
Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- 
ware, of Sl»^el and iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By 
Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- 
facture of Lon," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By 
A. A. FESQLkCT, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . $1.50 
OVERMAN. —The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : 
A Treatise or. Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry -sand, Loam, 
and Cement; the Moulding of Macliine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow- 
ware, Ornamerfs, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds 
for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, 
Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and 
Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, 
etc , etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to 
which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, 
Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. FesqUET, Chem- 
ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. l2mo. . $2.0Q 
PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION. 
Comprising the Manufacture and Test of Pigments, the Arts of Paint 
Ing, Graining, Marbling, Staining, Signwriting, Varnishing, Glass- 
staining, and Gilding on Glass ; together with Coach Painting and 
Viirnisliing, and the Principles of the Harmony and Contrast of 
Colors. Twenty-seventh Edition. Revised, Enlarged, and in great 
part Rewritten. By William T. Brannt, Editor of "Varnishes, 
Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing Waxes." Illustrated. 395 pp. 

l2mo , ^I 50 

PALLETT.— The Miller's, Millwright's, and Engineer's Guide. 
By Henry Pallett. Illustrated. i2mo. . . . ^2.00 



22 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO;'S CATALOGUE. 

PERCY.~The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron. 

Bv John Percy, M. D., F. R. S. Paper. ... 25 cts. 
PERKINS.— Gas and Ventilation: 

Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. Illustrated. I2mo. ^1.25 
PERKINS AND STOWE.— A New Guide to the Sheet-iron 
and Boiler Plate Roller : 
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles 
to Produce Boiler Plates, and of ihe Weight of Piles and the Sizes of 
Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauge 
in decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or 
Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per 
sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various 
dimensions to weigh 112 lbs, per bundle; and the conversion of 
Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. 

^1.50 
POSSELT. — Recent Improvements in Textile Machinery Re- 
lating to Weaving : 
Giving tlie Most Modern Points on the Construction of all Kinds 
of Looms, Warpers, Beamers, Slashers, Winders, Spoolers, Reeds, 
Temples, Shuttles, Bobbins, Heddles, Heddle Frames, Pickers, 
Jacquards, Card Stampers, etc., etc. 600 ilius. . . ^3 00 

POSSELT.— Technology of Textile Design: 

The Most Complete Treatise on tlie Construction and Application 
of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics and the Analysis of Cloth. By E, 

A. Posselt. 1,500 illustrations, 4to ^5-00 

POSSELT. — Textile Calculations: 

A Guide to Calculations Relating to the Manufacture of all Kinds 
of Yarns and Fabrics, the Analysis of Cloth, Speed, Power and Belt 
Calculations. By E, A, PossELT, Illustrated. 4to. . ^2.00 
REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: 

By M. V. Regnault, Translated from the French by T. Forrest 
Betton, M, D., amd edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter 
and Refiner U. S, Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and 
Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 ■wood-engravings. Com- 
prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . §6.00 
fllCHARDS.— Aluminium : 

Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, 
including its Alloys, By Joseph W, Richards, A, C, Chemist and 
Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- 
schaft, Illust, Third edition, enlarged and revised (1895) . ^6.00 
'RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical 
Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : 
Comprising the Origin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the 
Treatment of the Raw Materials ; the best Formulae and the Newest 
Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and 
the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use ; Dryers ; the 
Testing. Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. 
RiFFAULT, Vergnaud, and ToussAiNT. Revised and Edited by M. 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 23 



F. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, by A. A. Fesqtji?i> 
Chemist and Engineer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one 

vol., 8vo., 659 pages $S-^^ 

ROPER. — Catechism for Steam Engineers and Electricians: 

Including the Consttuction and Management of Steam Engines, 
Steam Boilers and Electric Plants. By Stephen Roper. Twenty- 
first edition, rewritten and greatly enlarged by E. R. Keller and 
C. W, Pike. 365 pages. Illustrations. i8mo., tucks, gilt. $2.00 

ROPER.— Engineer's Handy Book: 

Containing Facts, Formulae, Tables and Questions on Power, its 
Generation, Transmission and Measurement; Heat, F'uel, and Steam; 
The Steam Boiler and Accessories; Steam Engines and their Parts; 
Steam Engine Indicator; Gas and Gasoline Engines; Materials; 
their Properties and Strength ; Togetlier with a Discussion of the Fun- 
damental Experiments in Electricity, and an Explanation of Dynamos, 
Motors, Batteries, etc., and Rules for Calculating Sizes of Wires. By 
Stephen Roper. I5ih edition. Revised and enlarged by E. R. 
Keller, M. E. and C. W. Pike, B. S. (1899), with numerous illus- 
trations. Pocket-book form. Leather. . . . . $3-5^ 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : 
Including the Modelling, Construction, Running, and Management 
of Lanr" and Marine Engines and Boilers. With ilJustrations. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Sixth edition. i2mo.,tvrcks, gilt edge. 

^3-50 
ROPER.— Hand-Book of the Locomotive : 

Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- 
tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By STEPHEN 
Roper, Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . ^2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. 
With illustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Fourth edition^ 
i2mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... $3-$^ 

ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. 

This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be 
asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring 
Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or 
dinary intelligence may commit them to memory in a short time. By 
Stephen Roper, Engineer. Third edition . . . ^2,00 
ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. 

By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. 

i8mo,, tucks, gilt edge ;^2.Q0 

ROSE.— The Complete Practical Machinist : 

Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps and 
Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools 
Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, Machine Tools, etc. By JoSHUA 
Rose, 391; Engravings. Nineteenth Edition, greatly Enlarged with 
New and Valuable Matter, i2mo,, 504 pages, . . ^2.50 

ROSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: 

Comprising Instructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing 
Instruments, Elementary Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw- 



24 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

ing, together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary 
Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical 
Motions, Engines and Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E, Illustrated 
by 330 engravings. 8vo., 313 pages . . . . ^4.00 

ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: 

Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th. 
ojieration of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrate 
ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care- 
fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By 
Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $1.00 

ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: 

Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- 
ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.- 
CoLONEL W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. 

i2mo . . $2.00 

SHAW^Civil Architecture : 

Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con. 
taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, 
Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. 
By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. 
The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. 
Eleventh edition. 4to. ....... ^6.00 

SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- 
tion, for Young Engineers. 
By W. F. ShUxNK, C. E. l2mo. full bound pocket-book form ^2.00 

SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. 

By J. W. Slater. i2mo ^3-oo 

SLOAN. — American Houses : 

A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 
26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. 8vo. . • .75 

SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture : 

C'jntainiiig Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with 
Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardening, Furniture, etc., 
etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel Sloan, 
Architect. 8vo ^2.50 

SLOANE. — Hoi-ne Experiments m Science. 

By T. O'CoNOR Slc^ne, E. M., A. M., Fh. D. Illustrated by 91 
engravings. i2mo. ........ ^I.oo 

SMEATON.— Builder's Pockt::-Companion : 

^ Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; 

with Practical Rules and Instructions cor.riected with the subject. 

By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, etc. i2mo. 
SMITH.— A Manual of Political Economy. 

By E. Peshine Smith. A New Edition, to which is added a full 

Index. i2mo. |E 25 



HENRV CAREY EAiRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 25 

SMITH.— Parks and Pleasure- Grounds : 

Or Practical Notes 011 Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and 
Gardens, By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and, 
Garden Architect, etc., etc. i2mo. .... $2.0Qi 

SMITH.— The Dyer's Instructor: 

Comprising Practical Inst'-uctions in the Art of Dyeing Silk, Cotton^ 
Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 
Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; anc^ 
the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, and thej 
various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work.* 
By David Smith, Pattern Dyer, i2mo. . . . ^1.50/ 

SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. 
By Warrington W, Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G, S; 
of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With iiumer- 
ous illustrations. i2mo, . . . . . . ^I«7S 

SNIVELY.— Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal. 
ysis. 
By John H. Snively, Phr, D, 8vo. . . . . $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative (L-hemical 
Analysis: 
A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. i6mo. 

^2.00 

STOKES.— The Cabinet Maker and Upholsterer's Companion: 
Comprising the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work; 
Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl- Work; the Art of Dyeing and Stain 
ing Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-Shell, etc. Directions for Lacker- 
ing, Japanning, and V->riushing; to make French Polish, Glues 
Cements, and Conino';" -' as; with numerous Receipts, useful to work 
men generally. Bv Stokes. Illustrated, A New Edition, with 
an Appendix upor .ench Polishing, Staining, Imitating, Varnishing, 
etc., etc, l2mo ........ ^1.25, 

STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS; 
Reports of Expennicnis on the Strength and other Properties of 
Metals for Cannon. Wuh a Description of the Machines for Testing 
Melals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers 
of the Ordnance Department, U. S. iVrmy, By authority of the Secre- 
taryofWar. Illusiraied by 25 large steel plates. Quarto . ^5.00 

SULLIVAN. — Protection to Native Industry. 
By Sir Edward Sullivan, Baronet, author of "Ten Chapters on 
Social Reforms." 8v.). . . . . . . . , ^i.oo 

SHERRATT.— The Elements of Hand-Railing : 

Simplified and Explained in Concise Problems that are Easily Under- 
stood. The whole illustrated with Thirty-eight Accurate and Origi- 
nal Plates, Pounded on Geonietiical Principles, and Showing how^'to 
Make Rail Without Centre Joints, Making Better Rail of the Same. 
Material, with Half the I ahor, and Showing How to Lay Out Stairs 
of all Kinds. By R. J, Sherratt, Folio. . . . ;552.50 



HENRY CAREY BAlRt? & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



SYME. — Outlines of an Industrial Science. 

By David Syme. 121110. . . ... $2.cx!t 

TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, 
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By Measurement. Cloth ...... 63 

THALLNER.— Tool-Steel : 

A Concise Handbook on Tool- Steel in General. Its Treatment in 
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194 pages. 8vo. 1902. . . . . . . |$2.oo 

TEMPLETON.— The Practical Examinatoron Steam and the 

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THAUSING. — The Theory and Practice of the Preparation of 
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THOMPSON.— Political Economy. With Especial Reference 
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THOMSON.— Freight Charges Calculator: 

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TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION: 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRB & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 27 

VAILE. — Galvanized- Iron Cornice-Worker's Manual: 

Containing Instructions in Laying out the Difterent Mitres, and 
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VILLE.— On Artificial Manures : 
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VILLE.— The School of Chemical Manures : 
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VOGDES. — The Architect's and Builder's Pocket- Companion 
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Cloth . . 1.50 

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inches ;^io.oo 

WAHNSCHAFFE.— A Guide to the Scientific Examination 
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«8 HENRY CAREY BAlRt) & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



WARE.— The Sugar Beet. 

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WARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for thfi 
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WILSON. — Carpentry and Joinery: 

By John Wilson, Lecturer on Building Construction, Carpentry and 
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WATSON.— A Manual of the Hand-Lathe : 

Comprising Concise Directions for Working Metals of all kinds. 
Ivory, Bone and Precious Woods; Dyeing, Coloring, and French 
Polishing; Inlaying by Veneers, and various methods practised tc 
produce Elaborate work with Dispatch, and at Small Expense. By 
Egbert P. Watson, Author of " The Modern Practice of American 
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WATSON.— The Modern Practice of American Machinists anJ 
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Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, Lat>ie 
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Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Togethej 



HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29 



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WATT.— The Art of Soap Making : 

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WILL.— Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis : 

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WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam : 

Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation and Explo- 
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^2.50 

WILSON.— First Principles of Political Economy: 

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WILSON.— The Practical Tool-Maker and Designer: 

A Treatise upon the Designing of Tools and Fixtures for Machine 
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CONTENTS : Introductory. Chapter I. Modern Tool Room and Equipment. 
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ments. XI. Drop Forging. XII. Solid Drawn Shells or Ferrules; Cupping or 
Cutting, and Drawing ; Breaking Down Shells. XIII. Annealing, Picklmg and 
Cleaning. XIV. Tools for Draw Bench. XV. Cutting and Assembling Pieces 
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Tools for Fox Lathe. XVIII. Suggestions for a Set of Tools for Machining the 
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WOODS. — Compound Locomotives: 

By Arthur Tannatt Woods. Second edition, revised and enlarged 
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30 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 



WOHLER.— A Hand-Bookof Mineral Analysis: 

By F. WoHLER, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Gottin- 
gen. Edited by Henry B. Nason, Professor of Chemistry in the 
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From the Transactions of the Society of Engineers, 1 869. By S. W. 
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RECENT ADDITIONS. 

BRANNT. — Varnishes, Lacquers, Printing Inks and Sealing-* 
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Their Raw Materials and their Manufacture, to which is added the 
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William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 39 Engravings, 338 pages. 

i2mo. $3.00 

BRANNT — The Practical Scourer and Garment Dyer: 

Comprising Dry or Chemical Cleaning ; the Art of Removing Stains ; 
Fine Washing; Bleaching and Dyeing of Straw Hats, Gloves, and 
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Editor of " The Techno-Chemical Receipt Book." Illustrated. 
203 pages. i2mo. ....... $2.00 

BRANNT.— Petroleum . 

its History, Origin, Occurrence, Production, Physical and Chemical 
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the Occurrence and Uses of Natural Gas. Edited chiefly from the 
German of Prof. Hans Hoefer and Dr. Alexander Veith, by Wm. 
T. Brannt. Illustrated by 3 Plates and 284 Engravings. 743 pp. 
8vo. 157.50 

BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- 
gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines : 
Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation; 
Preparation of P>uit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, 
Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By WiLLlAM T. 
Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. ^6.00 

BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts 
and Processes : 

Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipula- 
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Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their 
Preservation. Edited from various sources. By WiLLIAM T. 
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HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 31 

OEITE.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of- Per- 
fumery : 
Comprising directions for making all Kinds of Perfumes, Sachet 
Powders, Furiiigatinir Materials, Dentifrices, Cosmetics, etc., with a 
full account of the Volatile Oils, Balsams, Resins, and other Natural 
and Artificial Perfume-substances, including the Manufacture of 
Fruit Ethers, and tests of their purity. By Dr. C. Deite, assisted 
by L. BoRCHERT, F, Eichbaum, E. Kugler, H. Toeffner, and 
other experts. From the German, by Wm. T. Brannt. 28 Engrav- 
ings. 358 pages. 8vo. $3 00 

EDWARDS. — American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and 
Practical : 

With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice, 
By Emory Edwards. 85 illustrations. i2mo. . . ^2.50 

EDWARDS. — 900 Exammation Questions and Answers: 

For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob- 
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form, gilt edge $^-5^ 

FLEMMING.— Practical Tanning: 

A Handbook of Modern Processes, Receipts, and Suggestions for the 
Treatment of Hides, Skins, and Pelts of Every Description. By 
Lewis A. Fleraming. American Tanner. 472 pp. 8 vo. (1903) ^4.00. 

POSSELT. — The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained: 

With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and 
Practical Hmts to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. 
PossELT. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 
4to ;^3.oo 

POSSELT.— The Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics: 

Being a Practical Treatise for the Use of all Persons Employed in 
the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics, containing a Description of the 
Growth and Manipulation of Cotton, Wool, Worsted, Silk Flax, 
Jute, Ramie, China Grass and Hemp, and Dealing with all Manu- 
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Minute Details for the Structure of all kinds of Textile Fabrics, and 
an Appendix of Arithmetic, specially adapted for Textile Purposes. 
By E. A. PossELT. Over 400 Illustrations, quarto. . ^^5.00 

IRICH. — Artistic Horse-Shoeing: 

A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of 
Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different 
Diseases of the Foot, and for the Correction of Faulty Action in 

, Trotters. By George E. Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages. 

\ lama ...,..,,.. |i.oo 



32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 

RICH ARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing : 

A Collection of Articles Contributed at Different Times by Skilled 
Workmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," 
and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the 
Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings. 
Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson. 

Vol.1. 2IO IlKistrations. 224 pages. l2mo. . , ^i.oo 

Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. i2mo. , . ^i.oo 
Vol. III. 390 Illustrations. 307 pages. i2mo. , . ^i.oo 
Vol. IV, 226 Illustrations. 276 pages, l2mo. , , ^i.oo 

RICHARDSON.— The Practical Horseshoer: 
Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Bran.ches' 
which have appeared from time to time in the columns of " 1 he 
Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T. 
Richardson. 174 illustrations. ..... ^i.oo 

ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and 
Firemen : 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. iSmo. Morocco . ^2.00 

ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management? 
By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. ^2.00 

ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book: 

Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which 
the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, 
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ROSE.— Modern Steam- Engines: 
An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain 
language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing OfKice, 
Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Stearrw 
Engines : Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To- 
gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of 
Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., 
thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the 
Principles involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot cut 
their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E. 
Illustrated by 422 engravings. Revised. 358 pp. . . ^6.00 

ROSE.— Steam Boilers: 

A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examfnation, for the 
Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Inspectors; and 
embracing m plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing 
or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated 
by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo $2.50 

SCHRIBER. — The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter: 
A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, 
and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions m all the Various Branches, 
including Lettering, Scrolhng, Oman^enting, Striping, Varnishing, 
and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus- 
trations. 177 pp. i2mo. ...... $l'Q<^ 



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